AI-generated abstract: Yushu Technology’s utility for an IPO on the STAR Market has been authorised. Robots have progressed from spinning handkerchiefs to performing backflips and martial arts on the Spring Festival Gala, whereas smartphone producers’ robots have damaged the human half-marathon file. The article breaks down the 4 core {hardware} methods of robots: skeleton, joints, sensors, and electrical and computational methods. Skeleton supplies have advanced from metal to aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, and titanium alloy, requiring a steadiness between light-weight design and impression resistance. Actuators, the costliest element at roughly 51% of whole value, are divided into rotary and linear actuators, incorporating precision components reminiscent of reducers, motors, lead screws, and encoders. Sensors embrace IMUs, cameras, LiDAR, and tactile methods. Chips undertake a “brain + cerebellum” structure. The article notes that though over 80% of elements overlap with the smartphone and automotive provide chains, the actual challenges lie in system-level integration, engineering trade-offs, and manufacturing consistency—provide chain maturity is a essential consider robotic evolution.
Article writer and supply: 36Kr
The bodily dilemma of humanoid robots
On June 1, Unitree Technology’s utility for an IPO on the STAR Market was efficiently reviewed and authorised by the Shanghai Stock Exchange Listing Review Committee. Just not too long ago, Unitree additionally unveiled its first manned reworking mecha. How far are we from seeing robots actually come to life?
Last 12 months’s Spring Festival Gala featured robots twirling handkerchiefs and performing yangge dance; this 12 months, they’ve superior straight to high-difficulty backflips and martial arts. Now, even robots made by smartphone producers can break human information whereas using a horse. Why has the evolution of robotic {hardware} accelerated so quickly over the previous two years?
To higher perceive the evolution of robotic entities, we visited a number of main robotics firms and spoke with business insiders: What are the actual challenges in constructing robots? Is the barrier to entry for robotics actually low? And what actually constitutes a robotics firm’s moat?
In this text, we’ll break down every element of the robotic—after studying by means of it totally, you’ll be capable of assemble your personal robotic.
Robots characteristic all kinds of {hardware}, which we are able to broadly categorize into 4 methods: the skeleton that helps the whole construction, the joints that drive motion of the skeleton, the sensors that understand the setting, and the electrical and computational methods that management the physique. Let’s start with the skeleton.
If a automobile touring at 60 km/h crashes right into a model, the immense impression would ship the model flying and shatter it into items. For humanoid robots, enduring such impacts has change into “routine.”
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Each time the robotic performs a flip and makes contact with the floor, it experiences accelerations of dozens of g’s—presumably increased than these in automobiles or spacecraft, corresponding to the impression acceleration of a automobile crashing right into a wall.
This poses a problem for the robotic’s structural supplies: it should be mild sufficient to flip, but sturdy sufficient to resist such immense impression forces—in any other case, a single somersault might trigger components to fly off. Therefore, the robotic’s first problem is to discover appropriate skeletal supplies.
The world’s first full-sized robotic, WABOT-1, was primarily made of metal and weighed roughly 160 kilograms; it may need dented the flooring simply by leaping, not to mention doing a somersault.
Later, from Honda’s ASIMO and Boston Dynamics’ early hydraulic variations of Atlas to the first era of Tesla Optimus, aluminum alloy grew to become the customary, with a density solely one-third that of metal.
The business has now begun exploring extra supplies, reminiscent of magnesium alloys, which have a density one-third decrease than aluminum, and higher-strength titanium alloys in areas topic to frequent impression, reminiscent of the knee and ankle joints.
Interestingly, these inflexible frames take in the impression for the robots, however suppliers appear to earn solely a modest revenue.
Former Head of Procurement at a robotics firm
After deducting the intrinsic steel content material and the waste discarded, the ratio of the last promoting worth of the body is definitely very low. The last sale worth of the body nonetheless consists of steel value plus processing price, with the majority of the value coming from the steel itself, leaving no room for worth discount. The processing price is already inside an inexpensive vary; if volumes enhance, the processing price will strategy very low ranges, as there are not any important obstacles to entry.
In addition to those core elements, the robotic’s exterior components could be divided into two classes:
One kind is ornamental and protecting elements, primarily used on the chest, again, and head, constituted of a range of supplies reminiscent of plastic, fake leather-based TPU, and material, primarily to scale back put on and present a extra nice contact. Although some robots seem to have steel our bodies, they’re truly plastic shells coated with a metallic paint.
Another kind includes creating robotic pores and skin that mimics human pores and skin, which should not solely really feel like human pores and skin but in addition have tactile sensors embedded beneath the floor.
Beyond the skeleton and pores and skin, it’s the joints that allow the robotic to carry out a variety of extremely advanced actions—and they characterize the costliest, technologically intensive, and story-rich element of the whole robotic {hardware} system.
You’ve in all probability seen many movies of robots dancing or doing backflips—that is achieved by first capturing human actions, then coaching a mannequin to map them onto robotic limbs.
A couple of years in the past, we have been amazed once we noticed Boston Dynamics’ Atlas carry out a backflip, however now most individuals in all probability take it with no consideration—it is because robotic joints have transitioned from hydraulic methods to electrical motors.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
We could not produce such superior joints earlier than; again then, the total efficiency of joints was very poor, and backflips have been extraordinarily troublesome to realize. In the previous one to 2 years, joint expertise has made super progress.
Joints are referred to in the business as actuators and are primarily divided into rotary actuators and linear actuators. Let’s use the shoulder for instance to see how they drive physique motion.
The shoulder has three levels of freedom: ahead and backward swing, upward and downward raise, and inside and exterior rotation, often known as pitch, roll, and yaw. Since these actions are primarily rotations, combining three rotational actuators permits the arm to maneuver freely in the X, Y, and Z instructions.
At the knee joint, just one diploma of freedom is usually wanted, so a single rotational actuator or linear actuator suffices. A linear actuator, like human muscle, strikes the higher and decrease bones by stretching.
Performing an excessive motion requires tight coordination amongst dozens of actuators throughout the physique; if any half reacts too slowly or applies even a slight deviation in power, the result’s a fall.
What is the inside construction of these actuators? Both rotary and linear actuators consist of a servo system made up of a motor, encoder, driver, and sensors. The foremost distinction is that rotary actuators use a servo motor with a gearbox, whereas linear actuators use a servo motor with a lead screw.
Let’s begin with the reducer.
Chapter 2.1 Rotary Actuator and Gearbox
You could have heard of this mechanism: the first gear turns 10 instances, the second turns as soon as, the third turns 0.1 instances, and so on with a complete of 100 gears. To make the final gear flip simply as soon as, the first gear would want to show a googol instances—that’s 1 adopted by 100 zeros—requiring extra power than the whole universe incorporates.
This is a big reducer, primarily an enormous lever that trades velocity for power. Why do robotic joints want reducers?
Because motors are inherently “high-speed, low-torque”: they will simply attain tens of hundreds of revolutions per minute, however produce comparatively small torque. Robotic joints require exact management, and it’s troublesome to make a motor rotate just some levels whereas concurrently lifting very heavy hundreds. Therefore, discount is required to decrease the velocity and enhance the torque—the increased the discount ratio (i.e., gear ratio), the extra the velocity is diminished and the increased the output torque turns into.
The three mostly used reducers in the business are planetary reducers, harmonic reducers, and RV reducers. Let us clarify them utilizing fashions.
First is the planetary gearbox, whose title is sort of descriptive: the motor connects to the central gear, which drives three planetary gears, and these in flip rotate the outer ring gear, very like planets orbiting the solar. It has a compact construction and low value, however presents restricted discount; below the similar motor velocity, it produces decrease output torque, so it’s generally utilized in hand joints.
When higher torque output is required, a harmonic drive is used. At its heart is the wave generator, which deforms the versatile spline into an elliptical form. Typically, the versatile spline differs by solely two tooth from the outer inflexible spline. Only two symmetrical areas of the versatile spline mesh with the inflexible spline at any time. As a end result, when the wave generator completes one full rotation, the versatile spline rotates by simply two tooth, enabling a really excessive discount ratio.
Harmonic drives ship excessive output torque and excessive precision, generally utilized in robotic elbow and shoulder joints to allow exact arm management.
As talked about earlier, when the robotic performs a backflip, the forces it endures are equal to a automobile collision, putting important calls for on the reducers in particular areas. However, the versatile construction of harmonic reducers additionally means they’ve poor impression resistance; at this level, RV reducers should be used.
The RV reducer consists of a first-stage planetary gear and a second-stage cycloidal pin gear. After the first stage reduces velocity, an eccentric cam drives the cycloidal disc to carry out eccentric movement; the cycloidal disc meshes with the pins on the housing, inflicting the housing to rotate.
This not solely supplies a excessive discount ratio, but in addition presents excessive rigidity and stronger impression resistance resulting from a number of tooth on the cycloidal disc partaking concurrently, making it generally utilized in robotic joints reminiscent of the hip, knee, and waist the place impression resistance is required.
The reducer is a extremely exact element, troublesome to fabricate, and difficult to keep up stability over long-term put on—it’s the most troublesome half of the whole joint.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
When gears are manufactured and utilized in massive portions, their precision and long-term operational stability should be very excessive. For instance, after 1,000 hours of use, if the gears begin producing varied uncommon noises or expertise efficiency degradation, it could change into troublesome for the movement management algorithm to compensate. This manifests in robots as a decline in strolling efficiency—maybe they not stroll as easily as earlier than, and even start to stroll more and more off-course.
Robots could carry out many excessive actions and usually fall themselves; these impacts might simply harm the small gears inside. How can we create gears that supply glorious efficiency, low value, long-term sturdiness, and excessive impression resistance after falls—with out compromising any of these components? This is a extremely difficult trade-off.
In different phrases, it’s not exhausting to make one gearbox—it’s exhausting to make ten thousand gearboxes which are all constant in efficiency and sturdy.
Chapter 2.2 Linear Actuators and Lead Screws
Next, let’s take a look at the linear actuator and its core element—the lead screw.
Linear actuators are the most just like human muscular tissues; once we swing our arms, it isn’t the joints actively rotating, however the muscular tissues connecting the two bones contracting. Therefore, linear actuators carry out just one kind of movement: pushing and pulling.
Some robots use linear actuators at the knee joint to imitate the pushing and pulling movement of human knee muscular tissues. When a number of linear actuators are mixed by means of particular constructions, they will additionally allow joint rotation. This kind of motion is utilized to areas reminiscent of the wrist and ankle.
The easiest technique to create a linear actuator is with a hydraulic system; the earlier model of Boston Dynamics’ Atlas primarily used linear hydraulic cylinders, providing benefits reminiscent of excessive energy output, impression resistance, and excessive energy density. Why the earlier model? Because the newer model has shifted to electrical motor drive, primarily resulting from the complexity of hydraulic methods, their tendency to leak oil, and their decrease management precision in comparison with motors.
But since the motor can solely rotate, a “converter” — particularly a lead screw — is required to provide linear movement.
The lead screw has threads, and when it rotates, it drives the nut to maneuver linearly, just like screwing in a bolt. To scale back friction, balls are added inside the lead screw—that is known as a ball screw. Some designs substitute the balls with rollers, providing longer life, increased load capability, and higher rigidity—this is called a planetary curler screw. Additionally, some purposes use trapezoidal screws.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Currently, curler screws are in all probability used extra continuously; they require extraordinarily excessive machining precision, and consistency should be maintained over a protracted journey distance. If there are any imperfections in between, it turns into a major problem for the management algorithms throughout totally different machines.
Some linear actuators are additionally paired with gearboxes to ship increased torque from the motor. However, in the present business, the utility of linear actuators is comparatively restricted, primarily resulting from three causes: poor dynamic efficiency, troublesome manufacturing, and excessive value.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Currently, the most mass-produced element throughout the business is the rotary joint. Linear actuators are additionally utilized in some purposes inside the business; their key benefit is the skill to deal with increased hundreds and keep a secure posture even when unpowered, due to their self-locking functionality. However, we imagine their disadvantage lies in barely inferior dynamic efficiency, as their excessive load and excessive gear ratio lead to much less agile movement. Another important problem is the problem in manufacturing them at scale and at low value. Therefore, at this stage, we don’t contemplate them appropriate for large-scale commercialization. Due to restricted present utilization, low cargo volumes, and minimal real-world buyer validation, their prices stay excessive.
After discussing transmission, let’s now speak about the energy itself—the motor and servo system.
Chapter 2.3 Motors and Servo Systems
The motors generally utilized in robotic our bodies are frameless torque motors. Compared to conventional motors, they lack housings and bearings, retaining solely the core elements, with a purpose to decrease measurement and allow direct integration into joints.
The dexterous hand is particular, utilizing smaller hollow-cup motors, which naturally lead to decrease output energy. The problem of the dexterous hand is even increased than that of the whole robotic physique.
The foremost challenges of the physique motor lie in three areas: power effectivity and warmth dissipation, measurement, and efficiency stability. Let’s first focus on power effectivity and warmth dissipation.
Electronic units inevitably generate warmth; when extreme warmth builds up past the regular working vary, efficiency declines. Therefore, the effectivity of the motor—how a lot power is definitely used to carry out work—is very necessary. If it overheats, the management system can solely scale back energy, inflicting, for instance, a mid-air flip to all of the sudden “lose strength” and crash to the floor.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
The earliest samples we made might solely carry out these excessive maneuvers as soon as inside about 10 minutes. After one run, the efficiency curves—reminiscent of velocity and torque—would change solely, presumably resulting from warmth buildup inside. At that time, we’d must let it calm down first, permitting the temperature to drop earlier than persevering with. Another main subject is power effectivity: how a lot of the enter power is transformed into warmth. For instance, a distinction between 5% and 3% represents an enormous hole. These components all restrict efficiency; even when my {hardware} capabilities are sturdy, I wouldn’t dare push efficiency any increased.
The distinction between 3% and 5% could seem small, however it’s necessary to notice that motor warmth era isn’t linear.
When a joint performs an excessive movement, the instantaneous present could also be 3 to five instances increased than regular, and the warmth era can attain 9 to 25 instances the rated stage. This means the price of warmth accumulation far exceeds the joint’s passive cooling capability. A single backflip might trigger the joint temperature to leap instantly from a ten°C rise to 50°C. Therefore, the motor wants to chill down after every motion earlier than the robotic can proceed to the subsequent motion.
To enhance motor effectivity, focus on motor supplies, winding methods, and structural design—we received’t go into element right here.
Currently, most joints rely on passive cooling, as the chassis makes use of a big quantity of steel, successfully appearing as an enormous heatsink. Only joints with very excessive energy necessities, reminiscent of these in the legs, moreover incorporate energetic air or liquid cooling.
Moreover, including extra cooling measures introduces a second problem: measurement limitations.
Engineers are striving to reduce the measurement of joint motors as a lot as attainable, not solely to scale back weight and decrease prices, however extra importantly as a result of bigger quantity ends in higher second of inertia, making it more durable to vary the movement state.
For instance, whenever you spin a rope, the shorter the rope, the quicker it spins; if the rope turns into longer, the velocity slows down, and it takes longer to cease.
The third problem is whether or not the efficiency is secure—that’s, at what present enter the motor achieves a sure rotational velocity and outputs how a lot torque, recognized in the business as the TN curve. This impacts the robotic’s management algorithm.
For instance, when strolling over an uneven floor, the six-axis torque sensor on the ankle detects the bumps. To keep steadiness, the present should be dynamically adjusted to manage motor torque. If the TN curve is unstable, the management system should subject the similar command, however the motor’s torque output might deviate, leading to a fall.
Moreover, the TN curve considerably impacts the coaching of the algorithm, as the bot is first educated in a simulation system; if the TN curve in the simulation differs enormously from actuality, the precise efficiency may even deviate.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
I’ll enter a curve into the simulation system; in actuality, this motor can obtain and even exceed that curve, which means it may well carry out the desired efficiency and actions. Conversely, if it performs properly at low speeds however its efficiency drops when velocity will increase, then sure excessive actions will certainly be inconceivable, as a result of some of the most difficult actions require each extraordinarily excessive velocity and immense burst energy.
To exactly management the quantity of motor rotations, a servo system is required, primarily composed of an encoder, driver, and sensors.
Encoders measure the angle, velocity, and place of the motor rotor, permitting the system to know the present state of the motor.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
The encoder is definitely essential; as a result of robots have reducers, twin encoders are required to know the positions of each the enter and output ends, enabling extra exact management.
The driver adjusts the voltage and present equipped to the motor based mostly on suggestions from the encoder and management instructions from the “cerebellum”.
There are varied varieties of sensors, reminiscent of torque sensors to measure output torque, temperature sensors to observe motor temperature and stop overheating, and extra.
These are the key elements inside the executor. Next, let’s focus on the executor as a complete—why is it essential for value discount? What are the foremost variations between in-house improvement and procurement?
Chapter 2.4 Development Path and Costs
According to Bank of America’s calculations, actuators are the costliest element on a robotic, accounting for roughly 51%.
Former Head of Procurement at a robotics firm
Whether it’s your hand or a motor, the motor (actuator) and management (controller) are dearer than your bones, your eyes (sensors), your mind (chip), and even your coronary heart (battery).
So, the executor is essential to reaching mass manufacturing and value discount in the future, primarily as a result of China’s provide chain is extraordinarily aggressive—many elements that beforehand required precision manufacturing in different nations can now be sourced domestically.
For instance, firms like Wolong Electric Drive for motors, Green Harmonic and Shuanghuan Transmission for reducers, Zhongdalide, and even firms that instantly present full actuators, reminiscent of Sanhua Intelligent Control and Tuopu.
Since ready-made actuators can be found on the market, why do robotics firms nonetheless make investments time and effort into growing their very own? Let’s examine these two approaches.
Purchasing completed merchandise can scale back R&D prices and enhance improvement effectivity, however the materials prices shall be increased, customization in accordance with your personal wants shall be troublesome, and efficiency could also be inadequate.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Most (executor) firms received’t customise merchandise particularly for you—they promote standardized elements, which are typically dearer. If an organization has a small inside workforce and inadequate experience in key areas, it’s often higher and quicker to buy from others.
Developing in-house permits for higher alignment with necessities and algorithms, leading to stronger efficiency, however it requires important improvement effort.
The selection of path is essentially a consideration of firm measurement and value; in accordance with our survey, main robotics firms nonetheless are likely to favor in-house improvement, and some even collaborate instantly with suppliers throughout the design course of.
So the robotic’s joints will not be nearly assembling components—they need to obtain a steadiness of energy, precision, sturdiness, value, and weight inside a particularly compact quantity, making them arguably the most difficult element of the whole physique. This is as a result of it’s an rising business with an underdeveloped provide chain, and everybody remains to be in the exploration part.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Initially, many of the manufacturing line units didn’t exist in the business, so we needed to design (and produce) them ourselves.
Strong joints alone aren’t sufficient—how does a robotic know easy methods to stand regular? How does it understand the world? Next, let’s speak about sensors.
Chapter 3: Vision System: How Robots Perceive the World
Chapter 3.1: Inertial Measurement Unit (Vestibular)
Today’s robots are very secure and hardly ever fall, even when people intervene. Achieving this steadiness requires sensors all through the robotic’s physique.
On one hand, there may be the motor servo system talked about earlier, which makes use of encoders and torque sensors inside the joints to repeatedly sense the present place and power at every joint, then adjusts the output at a frequency of hundreds of instances per second.
On the different hand, having solely a way of the limbs isn’t sufficient; simply as people rely on the vestibular system in the inside ear to sense physique tilt and rotation, robots use an inertial measurement unit (IMU) for this function.
IMUs are quite common—for instance, whenever you rotate your cellphone and the display screen rotates with it, that’s due to an IMU.
IMU is a mixture of a number of sensors, with the two most crucial being the accelerometer, which measures acceleration alongside the X, Y, and Z axes, and the gyroscope, which measures angular velocity round the pitch, yaw, and roll axes. Additionally, the IMU usually features a magnetometer, appearing as an digital compass for calibration.
By combining these knowledge, the IMU can sense the robotic’s movement in actual time. When we kick it, the physique immediately features acceleration and could tilt ahead, backward, or sideways. Once the IMU detects this variation, it sends the knowledge to the “cerebellum,” which calculates how a lot torque so as to add or scale back at every joint to revive steadiness. This element is extensively utilized in units like smartphones and automobiles, so its expertise and purposes are comparatively mature.
Fall prevention depends on the IMU, however for every day actions, collision avoidance is extra essential, and impediment avoidance primarily relies upon on the visible system.
Chapter 3.2 Cameras and LiDAR (Eyes)
The robotic’s “eyes” are similar to autonomous driving in automobiles, however not precisely the similar. The frequent strategy includes sensor fusion with cameras, LiDAR, and millimeter-wave radar. The exception is Tesla’s Optimus—众所周知, Musk is a staunch advocate of pure imaginative and prescient, utilizing solely cameras.
In phrases of sensor utilization, robots are almost as advanced as vehicles, and many suppliers have transitioned from the automotive provide chain. However, though the similar varieties of sensors are used, their precise specs differ considerably—we’ll use the dearer LiDAR for instance.
First, the ranging necessities differ. Cars must journey on highways, so LiDAR should detect obstacles 150–200 meters away. Robots primarily function indoors, the place 10–20 meters is adequate. Shorter ranging means LiDAR can have decrease energy consumption, smaller measurement, and diminished value.
Second, the level cloud density and scanning strategies differ. Cars establish massive objects reminiscent of automobiles, individuals, and obstacles, which could be detected with decrease level cloud density. However, robots want to choose up small objects like screwdrivers from a desk or cash from the floor, requiring increased level cloud density.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
We need the level cloud to be very dense. Currently, we use non-repetitive scanning, the place standing in a single place for some time makes the level cloud denser. This could be very helpful for us as a result of our robots usually don’t carry out extremely aggressive operations—they transfer slowly, very like people do when performing many duties. In distinction, automobiles have very excessive necessities for stability, real-time efficiency, and repeatability.
Third, the set up location and measurement differ. A car can mount LiDAR on the roof or bumper, the place a bigger measurement is appropriate, however robots have smaller our bodies and require smaller modules.
Fourth, the reliability necessities differ. For instance, automobiles function outside year-round and require a better working temperature vary, whereas robots expertise higher impression forces and demand increased vibration resistance.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Previously, for automotive purposes, the minimal working temperature vary for LiDAR was -40°C to 85°C, however for robots, that is at the moment utterly pointless. Therefore, many design options in automobiles which are particularly supposed for reliability are redundant in robotics. The acceleration skilled by a automobile throughout a collision could also be corresponding to the acceleration a robotic experiences throughout a single backflip, so we now have very excessive necessities for stability below vibration situations.
Although LiDAR for vehicles is already extremely mature, LiDAR for robots remains to be in the early phases of business improvement.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
We need the system to be smaller, with denser level clouds, shorter vary, however a wider FOV (area of view)—these necessities haven’t but been totally addressed.
According to the former head of AI {hardware} at Tesla, they chose automotive-grade cameras for the digicam system, however the inside improvement path modified a number of instances.
Liu Xiangke (Kerry)
Former head of AI {hardware} at Tesla
The present answer is predicated on a 5-megapixel digicam mounted on the car. The earliest variations used a number of cameras with various pixel counts, decreasing body price to extend pixel decision. This was finished as a result of Elon requested that the robotic be succesful of threading a needle; we calculated that reaching this could require greater than 15 million pixels to obviously see the activity.
The software program workforce additionally talked about that if adjustments have been made to the pixel depend or digicam {hardware}, the necessities for retraining the mannequin—each in phrases of time and workload—would enhance considerably. What if it’s not possible? They thought-about including autofocus to the digicam. But later it appeared this won’t be strictly mandatory in any case, so the determination has continued to evolve.
Chapter 3.3 Touch
Next, let’s speak about haptics—there are primarily 4 methods to realize it:
The commonest kind is piezoresistive, which converts stress into resistance to change {an electrical} sign, reminiscent of in digital scales.
The second kind is capacitive, utilizing an elastic medium to separate two layers; when stress is utilized, the distance between the electrodes decreases, inflicting a change in capacitance.
The third kind is piezoelectric: when the materials is subjected to power, it instantly generates voltage, reminiscent of the small system inside a lighter that produces a spark.
The fourth kind is optical, that includes a floor made of elastic materials that deforms below stress and is captured by a digicam—that is at the moment the hottest strategy.
Haptic suggestions needs to be three-dimensional, succesful of sensing not solely stress but in addition friction on a aircraft. For instance, when choosing up a soda bottle, your hand grips and lifts it upward; in case your fingers detect slipping friction, they enhance grip energy to stop it from falling.
But this additionally presents important challenges for supplies and algorithms.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
First, at the stage of the sensor itself, since these sensors are basically made of supplies, this can be very troublesome to completely decouple the three (X, Y, Z) instructions, making precision a lot more durable to realize than with one-dimensional power sensors. How can we make it correct? Second, integrating such advanced three-dimensional tactile knowledge with manipulation fashions can also be very difficult, as a result of the total quantity of obtainable knowledge remains to be very restricted.
Under these challenges, mass-produced robots in the business beforehand hardly ever integrated haptic suggestions.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Throughout all merchandise mass-produced in 2025, haptic suggestions is used very hardly ever, nearly by no means—not simply by us, however throughout the whole business—as a result of this expertise is unstable.
You want to contemplate the way it can keep its form over long-term use, as a result of even a slight deformation might utterly alter the output sign. Additionally, efficiency drift should be averted—its form and place should stay intact, but the materials must be barely smooth whereas additionally being extremely wear-resistant, which is inherently contradictory.
But this 12 months, issues appear to have modified a bit. Our interviewee talked about that by 2026, there may be hope for scaled manufacturing, and the subsequent step is to raised combine tactile methods into knowledge assortment and coaching. Overall, the tactile business remains to be very early-stage, and we stay up for seeing extra progress in the future.
In addition to the sensors talked about above, the robotic additionally requires temperature, humidity, six-axis power torque sensors, UWB, and others—all of that are well-established, so we received’t elaborate additional.
Sensors allow robots to understand the world, and joints give them the skill to maneuver, however to combine these two parts, a “central hub” is required—let’s focus on this hub: the electrical structure.
04 Electrical and Computing: Chip Integration and Harness Lightweighting Chapter 4.1 Chips (Brain and Cerebellum)
As talked about in our earlier article on robotic algorithms, the business has developed a dual-system structure known as “System 1 + System 2,” the place System 1 handles limb management and System 2 performs advanced reasoning. Similarly, on chips, a “cerebellum + brain” mixture is employed.
Why not use one chip to do all the things? Because the necessities are utterly reverse.
A mind chip that wants to consider “how to get things done” requires excessive computational energy and massive reminiscence, ideally succesful of operating massive fashions on the edge, with delays of just a few seconds having just about no impression.
Currently, the overwhelming majority of robotic brains use NVIDIA’s Orin chip. In 2025, NVIDIA launched the Thor chip, which presents increased efficiency and is particularly designed for robots and bodily AI, and is predicted to change into the future customary.
Except for Tesla Optimus, it makes use of custom-designed chips, and even twin chips.
Liu Xiangke (Kerry)
Former head of AI {hardware} at Tesla
Since robots will not be autonomous automobiles, they don’t have these security issues, and Elon himself initially thought: “We don’t need this safety redundancy anymore—one chip is enough.” After constructing a single-chip system, he later realized one thing was unsuitable: the world mannequin necessities for robots demand way more computing energy than autonomous driving. If two chips are barely sufficient for autonomous driving, how might one presumably suffice for a robotic? He shortly corrected himself: “No, no—go back to two chips.”
Additionally, at CES earlier this 12 months, Qualcomm additionally launched the robotics mind chip Dragonwing IQ10 and introduced its partnership with Figure.
The cerebellar chip, which “controls the body,” doesn’t require extraordinarily excessive computational energy, however it should have excessive real-time efficiency, stability, and response velocity—delaying by just some milliseconds might trigger a fall.
For instance, when a robotic performs backflips or dances, it sometimes makes use of pre-recorded actions, however we discover that its toes nonetheless make small changes—that is the cerebellum dynamically regulating steadiness, very like a human’s “instinctive response.”
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
The cerebellum requires very excessive velocity, so the frequency inside the cerebellum could also be 1 kHz.
Currently, small mind chips are sometimes MCUs, with mainstream selections together with STMicroelectronics’ STM32 collection, NXP’s i.MX RT collection, and Renesas’ RZ collection.
We are additionally seeing a brand new pattern: the business is trying to combine mind and cerebellum chips. Tesla is at the forefront on this space, having pursued this strategy from the starting.
Liu Xiangke (Kerry)
Former head of AI {hardware} at Tesla
We initially assumed that the Hardware 4 {custom} chip was used at the moment. Since Tesla’s mind and cerebellum are built-in onto the similar chip, how is the whole physique’s motion managed by means of this single chip, and what communication structure is employed? We spent appreciable time researching this strategy—a single SOC containing each ASICs for compute energy and a multi-core CPU succesful of dealing with cerebellar capabilities; this high-frequency CPU additionally presents extraordinarily low latency.
Besides Tesla, different firms are additionally researching built-in options.
For instance, in March this 12 months, Lingjing Zhiyuan launched the Dvořák structure, integrating the three capabilities of “brain-cerebellum-cortex” onto a single chip. What advantages does consolidating them onto one chip convey?
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
First, I believe the greatest benefit is that, since all the things is now built-in onto a single board, the total chest cavity quantity and wiring change into a lot less complicated. Second, as we go additional, the coordination between the mind and cerebellum turns into more and more necessary. For instance, if somebody throws a dart at you, perceiving and predicting its trajectory probably includes the mind, whereas reaching out to catch it includes the cerebellum. The quicker the communication between these two, the extra successfully you may carry out extremely advanced actions. If the mind and cerebellum are built-in on the similar chip, communication between them could be extraordinarily quick, permitting the mind to manage the cerebellum in actual time and obtain suggestions at very excessive speeds.
However, in accordance with business views, unified brain-and-cerebellum chips are nonetheless in a really early stage; robotic producers will solely progressively shift towards built-in, in-house developed chips, as sensible automobile firms have finished, as soon as robotic shipments attain adequate quantity and the market turns into massive sufficient.
Chapter 4.2 Battery and Wiring Harness (Heart, Nerves, Blood Vessels)
Finally, a battery that gives power to the whole physique, like the robotic’s coronary heart. The core requirement is reaching increased capability at decrease density; main suppliers embrace CATL, LG, and EVE Energy.
There are additionally harnesses distributed all through the physique, like nerves and blood vessels, used for communication and energy provide between units. Major suppliers embrace Luxshare Precision, TE Connectivity, and Amphenol.
There are many varieties of robotic provide chains, so we received’t undergo all of them right here—as an alternative, we’ve included an summary picture for these to zoom in and discover.
By now, you’ve discovered easy methods to construct a robotic—however maintain on. If you truly attempt to construct one your self, you’ll shortly understand there are points in all places, as a result of the greatest problem in robotics is balancing all the totally different engineering disciplines.
Finally, let’s focus on the challenges of meeting and mass manufacturing, and the causes behind the speedy developments in robotics over the previous two years.
If you watched the latest robotic marathon, you may discover there have been lots of amusing moments on web site.
Some sit down wherever they please, drawing applause from the robotic subsequent door; others twist their ankles whereas operating, get drunk, lose an arm, cost onto the greenery, or crash into velocity bumps and break into items.
There have been additionally excellent performances, reminiscent of the Glory robotic, which not solely swept the high six positions but in addition broke the human half-marathon file.
But this has additionally sparked some dialogue: if even smartphone producers can carry out so properly in robotics, does that imply the business has low obstacles to entry?
Chapter 5.1 Assembly
The business skilled’s reply is: Yes, and, No. Let’s begin with the Yes half.
The elements and suppliers talked about earlier overlap considerably with these in the smartphone and automotive industries; additional up the chain, some algorithms can be reused in autonomous driving, which is why Honor, Xiaomi, Tesla, and Xpeng have entered the robotics area.
Former Head of Procurement at a robotics firm
The provider overlap for the electrical and energy methods exceeds 90%. For the mechanical system (body construction), even when the molds differ, many suppliers are nonetheless related. Electric drive is the solely space with probably decrease relevance to vehicles, since automobiles don’t require elements that ship excessive torque. However, elements reminiscent of reducers and gears are extensively utilized in automobiles, as are sensors. Therefore, over 80% of the elements are primarily interchangeable.
Theoretically, so long as you recognize these suppliers, you may construct a robotic your self. But there’s an enormous hole between “it works” and “it’s usable”—that’s the No half.
For instance, if the weight distribution is uneven after meeting, the robotic’s heart of gravity shifts, inflicting sure joints to exert additional effort to keep up steadiness, growing energy consumption, decreasing battery life, and probably affecting gait stability.
Or, it’d run completely in the lab for an hour, however after 100 hours in a real-world setting, all kinds of points emerge: a screw loosens, a wire wears out, lubricant in a joint dries up, a sensor begins to float—these all require steady tuning to search out the proper steadiness.
Former Head of Procurement at a robotics firm
Each element, I break it down by provider, and I don’t assume the suppliers themselves are troublesome—it’s the system integration that’s the actual problem.。
It’s extra about imposing constraints—like requiring the system to be light-weight or diminished in weight to a sure diploma—however when you confine it to a human type, the problem lies in matching human-level torque and precision, which is primarily a matter of engineering trade-offs.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
The customary merchandise obtainable on the market are sometimes unsatisfactory and fall quick of our precise algorithmic utility necessities, so these are core elements that we should develop ourselves.
Chapter 5.2 Mass Production
Creating commercially viable, mass-producible robots will nonetheless face challenges associated to consistency.
Because the joint backlash, sensor zero factors, and motor parameters differ throughout items, changes to every element are required to make sure the similar algorithm could be stably utilized to totally different batches of {hardware}.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
Place ten robots there and ship them the similar parameters (directions); their fingers will prolong to totally different positions.
If you carry out an operation, a distinction of just some millimeters can flip efficiently greedy an object into knocking it over—making it extraordinarily difficult to correctly calibrate all of the robotic’s sensors and actuators. Furthermore, after calibration, are you able to assure that after a 12 months of use, when elements have aged and sensors have change into distorted, the system will nonetheless stay secure? This could require on-line calibration, the place the system can autonomously detect and analyze its personal errors. These are invisible efforts, however with out them, many subsequent issues can’t be resolved.
So the actual problem is not “putting it together,” however system-level integration.
Let’s return to the robotic marathon: this 12 months, not solely has velocity improved considerably, however total completion has additionally elevated. Looking at the evolution of robotic actions over the previous two years—from strolling, to twirling handkerchiefs, to dancing and martial arts—why has the progress been so speedy? The most necessary motive is the maturation of the provide chain.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
In the previous one or two years, the robotics business wasn’t as extensively embraced as it’s now; again then, individuals wouldn’t develop LiDAR particularly for robots—they’d say, “I made this for logistics vehicles, just take it and use it.” At that point, we have been begging others for assist, and most individuals have been skeptical about robotics.
As we talked about earlier, many segments of the robotics provide chain overlap with the automotive business. Previously, suppliers confronted inside useful resource competitors: given restricted manufacturing capability, ought to they prioritize supplying established industrial industries, or reconfigure their manufacturing strains to wager on robotics markets which are nonetheless immature?
Former Head of Procurement at a robotics firm
Previously, I felt the market hadn’t reached this stage but—it’d nonetheless be one to 2 orders of magnitude behind precise high-volume merchandise like telephones and automobiles. Suppliers are additionally in a strategic balancing act, as their inside assets are restricted.
As the robotics sector grows more and more standard, suppliers are actually prepared to create {custom} molds and merchandise particularly for robots. As demand will increase and commercialization pathways change into clearer, the provide chain will proceed to develop like a snowball.
What shall be the subsequent milestone motion?
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
A couple of days in the past, I went to the Shanghai Circus World and watched a efficiency; my feeling was that there’s nonetheless a lot room for enchancment in robotics.
The acrobat blindfolded, strolling a tightrope dozens of meters in the air, the stunt performer spinning dozens of bowls concurrently with a single chopstick—they exhibit what humanity has advanced over thousands and thousands of years: excessive notion, instinctive steadiness, and tactile suggestions at the most interesting scale.
Although robots can now carry out backflips and martial arts, they’re nonetheless removed from being like people.
I requested Wang Chuang what he was trying ahead to as the robotic’s subsequent milestone, and his reply stunned me a bit. It wasn’t about extra advanced or fancy actions, however one thing extraordinarily fundamental—a human-like “sensory-motor integration” intuition: catching a falling leaf.
Wang Chuang
Partner, Senior Vice President, President of General Business Division
There is a leaf; I can stroll over to it and attain as much as pinch it with my fingers.
A breeze handed by, sweeping by means of a grove of bushes, and as “it” walked over and reached out, it “just happened” to catch a falling leaf. On at the present time, robots drew considerably nearer to our every day lives.