UPSC Prelims 2026 Revision Checklist: Science and Technology

#1. Sodium-ion batteries

— It is far more ample than lithium and could be extracted from seawater at comparatively decrease prices.

— It is extra environmentally pleasant.

— It could be transported at zero volt, making it safer, in contrast to lithium, which is much less environmentally pleasant and should be all the time saved with a minimal cost, rising fireplace dangers.

— It makes use of aluminum, which is cheaper than copper used within the lithium-ion battery tech.

— Sodium-ion batteries even have the next working temperature vary and are therefore safer, on condition that these can be utilized in additional excessive temperatures with out the danger of thermal runaway.

#2. Reverse osmosis

— Saline water contains significant concentrations of dissolved salts (ranging up to 35,000 ppm) and is otherwise unfit for human consumption. Given the shortage of freshwater sources and a rising inhabitants, the necessity for extra water provides has lengthy been recognised.

— Desalination crops are extremely energy-intensive and run on electrical energy generated from liquid fuels or pure gasoline, producing 500 to 850 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions yearly. Another concern is that reverse osmosis, the predominant desalination technique, generates giant portions of saltwater brine, that are sometimes discharged into the ocean. These can hurt marine habitats and kill sea creatures akin to plankton and fish larvae.

— Reverse Osmosis could be utilized for desalination of brackish water, water reuse (in pharma /biotech, waste water, electrocoating, meals and beverage industries) and radioactive waste remedy.

#3. Helioseismology

— Scientists used a method called helioseismology to detect the movements inside the Sun. This technique is used to check the photo voltaic floor to know the actions contained in the Sun, the identical method earthquakes are used to check the actions contained in the Earth.

— They analysed greater than a decade of photo voltaic observations collected by the Solar Dynamics Observatory, a satellite tv for pc operated by NASA. In explicit, they used measurements from the satellite tv for pc’s Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI)– an instrument designed to trace oscillations and magnetic exercise throughout the Sun’s floor.

#4. Critical minerals

— Critical minerals are required for a lot of trendy vitality applied sciences in addition to the general economic system. For instance, lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, and graphite are important for battery efficiency.

— Rare earth components are required for the everlasting magnets present in wind generators.

— Electricity networks require a considerable amount of aluminium and copper, the latter being the inspiration of all electricity-related applied sciences.

#5. CAR T-cell remedy

— CAR T-cell therapy is a cutting-edge remedy that reprogrammes T-cells to higher goal most cancers cells. Doctors gather T-cells from a affected person’s blood and, within the lab, add a brand new gene that equips them with particular receptors known as chimeric antigen receptors (CARs). These receptors act like GPS trackers, guiding the T-cells to most cancers cells. Once engineered, the cells are grown in giant numbers and infused again into the affected person.

— Globally, CAR T-cell remedy has been accepted within the US and Europe for sure blood cancers akin to leukemia and lymphoma. It is presently simplest in sure blood cancers (like leukemia and lymphoma), not all cancers.

#6. Oort Cloud

— The Oort Cloud is made up of ice house particles, a few of that are bigger than mountains and orbit our Sun at distances of as much as 1.6 mild years. This shell of fabric is thick, starting from 5,000 to 100,000 astronomical models. One astronomical unit (AU) is the gap from the Sun to Earth, which is roughly 93 million miles (150 million km).

— The Oort Cloud is the boundary of the Sun’s gravitational affect, the place orbiting objects can flip round and return nearer to our Sun.

— The Oort Cloud is positioned past the Kuiper Belt’s periphery. This large spherical shell encircles our photo voltaic system. It has by no means been instantly noticed, however its presence is anticipated utilizing mathematical fashions and observations of comets which can be believed to originate there.

#7. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) security know-how

— V2V or vehicle-to-vehicle communication is a wi-fi know-how that can allow the automobiles to speak or discuss with each other to share real-time data like velocity, location, acceleration, braking, and so on. It is the sub-category of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) and comes below the umbrella of the Intelligent Transport System.

— The system is much like the aviation sector know-how, the place plane broadcast their place, velocity, altitude, and the close by plane and floor stations obtain it. While this technique is fortified within the aviation sector the world over, the street sector continues to be evolving, and V2V is working in just a few nations, largely developed nations.

— Usually, V2V techniques have a spread of 300 metres and can detect automobiles on this vary. For occasion, if a automotive applies brakes all of the sudden, the close by automobiles will get an alert to decelerate earlier than seeing it. This will assist in lowering crashes.

#8. Long Range Anti-Ship Hypersonic Missile (LR-AShM)

— The missile system is designed to meet the coastal battery requirements of the Indian Navy. The LR-AShM is capable of engaging static and moving targets and is designed to carry various payloads to a range of around 1,500 kilometers.

— This missile follows a quasi-ballistic trajectory with hypersonic speeds beginning at Mach 10 (multiples of velocity of sound) and sustaining common Mach 5 with a number of skips. Ballistic missiles are boost-powered initially and then journey unpowered on a excessive, arched trajectory. Quasi-ballistic missiles start ballistically however fly decrease and manoeuvre in flight to alter course and evade interception.

— The LR-AShM is configured with a two-stage stable propulsion rocket motor system. These propulsion techniques enhance the missile to the required hypersonic velocities. Stage-1 of the automobile is separated after it’s spent. After Stage-II burnout, the automobile performs an unpowered glide with required manoeuvres within the environment earlier than participating the goal.

— It has excessive aerodynamic effectivity which signifies that it strikes by the air with minimal drag whereas producing efficient raise and management, permitting it to fly farther, sooner, or extra precisely utilizing the identical quantity of vitality.

#9. GPS interference

— GPS interference contains spoofing and jamming, two varieties of deliberate cyber-attacks on Global Positioning System (GPS) alerts that disrupt or confuse automobile navigation techniques. Spoofing and jamming are sometimes used interchangeably, nevertheless they consult with considerably several types of interference.

— GPS jamming, often known as GPS intervention, happens when a tool (jammer) emits robust radio alerts on GPS frequencies with a view to overcome weaker alerts. This impairs the operation of GPS techniques by stopping receivers from figuring out location or time.

— GPS spoofing happens when a tool transmits alerts on the identical frequencies utilised by GPS satellites, overpowering or blocking GPS receivers from buying or sustaining the proper satellite tv for pc alerts. Unlike jamming, which utterly interrupts transmissions, spoofing tricked the receiver into believing faux information.

#10. Cyanobacterial engineered residing materials (C-ELM)

— The biomaterial, often called a cyanobacterial engineered residing materials (C-ELM), incorporates residing cyanobacteria inside translucent panels that may be mounted on the inside partitions of buildings. As the microorganisms develop by photosynthesis, they seize carbon dioxide from the air.

— Through a course of known as biomineralisation, the captured CO2 is transformed into calcium carbonate, successfully trapping the carbon. A kilogram of C-ELM can seize as much as 350g of carbon dioxide, whereas the identical quantity of conventional concrete would emit roughly 500g of CO2. A wall coated with 150 sq. metres of those panels may sequester about one tonne of carbon dioxide. C-ELM continues to seize CO₂ throughout use by ongoing photosynthesis. The potential of this biomaterial is immense. If scaled up and broadly applied, it may considerably scale back the development business’s carbon footprint.

#11. Working of the induction stoves

— Beneath the smooth ceramic or glass surface of an induction cooktop sits a tightly wound coil of copper wire. Switching the range on completes the circuit and permits the stream of alternating present (AC) by the wire. The alternating present generates a quickly fluctuating magnetic discipline instantly above the cooktop.

— This altering magnetic discipline passes effortlessly by the glass floor and the encompassing air with out heating both the floor or the air. This permits the cooktop floor to largely keep its temperature. Any heat it acquires is from contact with the new pan.

— So when the metallic pan sits inside this intensely fluctuating magnetic discipline, it acts as a conductor. And localised, swirling electrical currents are generated inside the underside of the pan itself. Known as eddy currents, these are pivotal to the heat-generation course of.

#12. Uranium enrichment

— Enrichment is the method by which the focus of Uranium-235 (U235) is elevated in a pattern of pure uranium, which is primarily greater than 99 per cent Uranium-238 (U238). U-235 has industrial applicability on account of its fissile nature, which means its nucleus could be damaged down (or is fissionable) by a course of that produces vitality, and is able to sustaining a sequence response.

— The majority of civilian nuclear reactors use “low enriched uranium” that has been enriched to between 3% and 5%. This signifies that 3–5% of the uranium within the pattern is now uranium-235. That is sufficient to maintain a sequence response and generate energy.

India’s three-stage nuclear programme

— The increased the uranium enrichment, the smaller and lighter the weapon could be.

#13. Ethanol manufacturing

— Ethanol production entails fermentation of sugar by yeasts. In molasses or cane juice, sugar is current as sucrose. Cereal grains include starch, a posh carbohydrate that has to first be extracted and damaged down into easy sugars earlier than additional fermentation, distillation and dehydration to ethanol with 99.99% alcohol focus.

— Currently, ethanol is roofed below the products and companies tax (GST) regime. The ethanol used for mixing with petrol attracts 5% GST. But petrol stays outdoors GST, attracting each the Central excise responsibility and State worth added tax. And each ethanol-blended petrol and pure petrol are handled as similar for taxation functions.

— Till 2017-18, ethanol was produced by distilleries hooked up to sugar mills solely from so-called C-heavy molasses, a darkish brown liquid byproduct of cane processing. From 2018-19, mills started making ethanol from an earlier ‘B-heavy’ stage molasses (having increased sucrose content material obtainable for fermentation) and additionally instantly from complete sugarcane juice or syrup. They had been inspired to take action by the Modi authorities’s resolution to pay mills extra for ethanol manufactured from the B-heavy and direct cane juice/syrup routes, with a view to compensate them for the revenues foregone from decrease/nil restoration and sale of sugar.

#14. Atomic clocks

— India’s regional navigation system has been plagued by problems affecting its positioning data. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) informed that the atomic clock of one of the five remaining satellites that were still providing this data stopped working — meaning positioning data from the satellite IRNSS-1F was also lost.

— Atomic clocks mix a quartz crystal oscillator with an ensemble of atoms to realize better stability. In an atomic clock, the frequency of the quartz oscillator is remodeled right into a frequency that’s utilized to a set of atoms. If the derived frequency is appropriate, it would trigger many electrons within the atoms to alter vitality ranges. If the frequency is inaccurate, far fewer electrons will bounce. This will decide if the quartz oscillator is off-frequency and by how a lot. A “correction” decided by the atoms can then be utilized to the quartz oscillator to steer it again to the proper frequency.

— Atomic clocks are used onboard GPS satellites that orbit the Earth. Up to 50 occasions extra steady than the atomic clocks on GPS satellites, NASA’s Deep Space Atomic Clock is meant to be essentially the most steady atomic clock ever flown in house. It achieves this stability through the use of mercury ions.

#15. Scramjet engine

— The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO makes use of Hydrogen as gasoline and the Oxygen from the atmospheric air because the oxidiser.

— Ramjets work most effectively at supersonic speeds round Mach 3, thrice the velocity of sound. However, the ramjet effectivity reduces as soon as the automobile reaches hypersonic speeds – above Mach 5. This is the place the Supersonic Combustion Ramjet or Scramjet engine is available in. It effectively operates at hypersonic speeds and permits supersonic combustion.

— The basic change in a scramjet is that the air doesn’t decelerate in its combustion chamber however stays supersonic all through the engine. This makes the design, improvement and operation of the scramjet far more difficult.

#16. Earthset

— “Earthset” is a historic {photograph} taken on April 6, 2026, by the Artemis II crew, displaying Earth dipping beneath the lunar horizon as seen from their spacecraft.

— The Artemis II crew, Nasa astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, and Christina Koch, together with Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen, named the second “Earthset” in reference to the well-known “Earthrise” {photograph} taken throughout the Apollo 8 mission in 1968.

#17. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

— The PSLV, or Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, is what is called a four-stage rocket. The levels consult with completely different elements of the rocket, every of which have their very own engines and gasoline. Each of those levels sequentially take cost of propelling the mission. They get indifferent and discarded after doing their job. The levels are typically additionally used to consult with the completely different phases of the mission flight.

Stages of PSLV

— The first stage entails the lift-off. This is a close to vertical journey until an altitude of about 50-60 km. This is the stage that requires essentially the most work as a result of the rocket has to struggle gravity in addition to atmospheric drag. For this purpose, this stage wants a really heavy engine and numerous gasoline.

— In the case of the PSLV, the primary stage makes use of a stable propellant as gasoline. The first stage varieties a big a part of the rocket, and constitutes the majority of its weight. This stage lasts barely two minutes, throughout which an enormous quantity of gasoline is consumed. After the gasoline is spent, this a part of the rocket turns into deadweight. So, it’s jettisoned. It detaches from the principle physique of the rocket, and falls off, passing the baton to the second stage.

— During the second stage, the rocket continues to maneuver vertically — and horizontally similtaneously it prepares to get into orbit. The second stage within the PSLV entails the well-known, indigenously developed Vikas engine and a liquid gasoline. This stage takes the automobile to about 220-250 km from Earth’s floor earlier than burning out.

— In the third stage, the automobile is transferring nearly fully horizontally, going across the Earth in an orbit, or quite a sub-orbital trajectory. To keep this trajectory, and keep away from falling in the direction of the Earth, it must journey at very excessive velocities, often 26,000 to twenty-eight,000 km per hour. The third stage is, due to this fact, about fast acceleration. The PSLV rocket burns stable gasoline to realize this.

— The automobile begins to go across the Earth at very excessive speeds, however doesn’t but attain its designated orbit. That occurs within the fourth stage, which entails exactly inserting the satellite tv for pc within the meant orbit.

#18. Kessler Syndrome

— Scientists have long warned about the increasing amount of debris circling Earth. It could be anything from a dead satellite to fragments from earlier missions. The hazard typically raised is that of Kessler Syndrome – a state of affairs the place collisions result in much more house particles, which can enhance the probabilities of different collisions.

— Most house junk strikes very quick; typically, it strikes sooner than 17,500 mph. Experts estimate that, whereas hundreds of thousands of objects bigger than a centimetre are in orbit, there are additionally tens of hundreds of thousands of even smaller fragments.

#19. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

— Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are chemical compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine. Certain substances on this class of compounds are regarded by business and scientists as long-term replacements to chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons.

— Because HFCs don’t include chlorine, they don’t have any direct impact on stratospheric ozone. Furthermore, pathways for ozone injury involving fragments shaped throughout the decomposition of HFCs within the environment (CF3 radicals) have been demonstrated to be minor.

— The most extensively utilised HFCs (HFC-134a and HFC-152a) have atmospheric lives of lower than 12 years on account of this response.

#20. Keytruda

— Keytruda is the model title of pembrolizumab, an immunotherapy drug manufactured by US-based international pharma main Merck & Co (MSD) for treating a number of cancers. It belongs to a category known as “checkpoint inhibitors” — medicine that take away the brakes stopping the physique’s T cells, that are a vital weapon within the physique’s immune system, from attacking cancerous cells. In different phrases, it makes use of the physique’s personal immune system to struggle most cancers.

#21. Designer rice

— Scientists at CSIR – National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, have developed this rice (a high-protein, low-GI innovation), which is touted to pack “three times the protein of normal grains while maintaining a low glycemic index to help manage diabetes”.

— The staff of scientists didn’t go for genetic modification. Instead they used “food-processing technology” the place they took the damaged rice, the bits often offered at a reduction, floor them into flour, and blended them with protein and micronutrients like iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12. They then “reformed” this combination into grains that look, really feel, and style precisely just like the rice we all know, their press assertion learn.

#22. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

— With India’s first indigenous fast breeder reactor (FBR) at Kalpakkam reaching criticality, indigenous FBRs are prone to play a essential position within the nation’s long run vitality safety. While FBRs symbolize the long run, pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) will proceed to play their pivotal position till the know-how matures.

— India’s nuclear energy programme relies on the sequential three-stage programme the place within the first stage is PHWR utilizing pure uranium. The gasoline for FBR (within the second stage) comes from PHWR, which is plutonium. Because the yield of plutonium is excellent in PHWR.

— As said, the gasoline for FBR is plutonium plus depleted uranium. FBRs initially use plutonium plus depleted uranium to acquire Uranium-233 (U-233) from the Thorium-232 (Th-232), which is used as a blanket in such reactors. Thus, we breed extra gasoline than we eat and therefore it’s named Breeder Reactor.

— In the third stage, it’s Th-232 that can get transformed into U-233, which might be gasoline for the superior reactors. This is the way it completes the entire nuclear energy programme and we are going to turn into self-independent so far as gasoline is worried. FBR is mainly one of many intermediate steps in completion of our three stage programme.

— FBRs don’t use mild water as moderator or coolant; they depend on quick neutrons and sometimes use liquid sodium as coolant.

#23. Dark matter

— Dark matter just isn’t the other of regular matter, nevertheless it doesn’t get affected by electromagnetic forces and mild, which suggests it lacks any electrons. This makes all darkish matter invisible, because it can’t be interacted with at current with any matter created, since every thing is created by atoms. This makes it extraordinarily tough to look at instantly, as it might solely be studied by its gravitational results.

— According to the examine, as darkish matter particles slowly decayed within the early universe, they could have launched small quantities of vitality that modified the chemistry of the primary gasoline clouds. Instead of that large gasoline breaking down into stars – the standard path to black gap formation- a few of these clouds might have collapsed instantly into large black gap seeds, successfully dashing up and skipping billions of years of cosmic biography.

#24. Magnesiochangesite-(Ce)

— Magnesiochangesite-(Ce) is a uncommon earth-bearing phosphate mineral with distinctive bodily and chemical traits. Researchers describe it as colourless and clear, with a glass-like lustre. It is fragile, tends to fracture like a shell, and emits a glow when uncovered to UV mild.

— The mineral was present in a lunar meteorite that was named Pakepake 005 and weighs about 44 grams. This meteorite was found within the Taklamakan Desert in 2024. It is recognised as a lunar meteorite due to its roundness and the black fusion crust created throughout its flight by Earth’s environment.

#25. Diseases in News

(i) Hantavirus

— Named after the Hantan River in South Korea, hantavirus is a household of rodent-borne viruses that may trigger critical sickness and dying in people. However, the virus-carrying rats and different rodents don’t fall in poor health to the virus.

— Human an infection primarily happens by contact with the urine, faeces, or saliva of contaminated rodents or by touching contaminated surfaces. It can also be attainable to get the an infection by respiration air that incorporates viral particles stirred up from these droppings, in keeping with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

— These viruses are usually not identified to unfold between folks. However, some human transmission was recorded for the Andes pressure, present in Argentina and Chile. The folks on the ship are suspected to have been contaminated by the Andes hantavirus.

— Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is endemic to the Western Hemisphere and attributable to New World hantaviruses. These are the deadlier of the 2 variants, killing a 3rd of those that develop respiratory signs. The illness progresses from flu signs and fatigue to diarrhoea, vomiting and extreme respiratory points.

(ii) Thalassemia

— Thalassaemia is an inherited blood dysfunction wherein the physique doesn’t produce sufficient haemoglobin, a purple blood cell protein that transports oxygen all through the physique.

— When you may have thalassaemia, your physique produces much less purple blood cells, due to this fact you might expertise signs of low blood depend, or anaemia. Thalassaemia sufferers may need gentle to extreme anaemia. Severe anaemia can injury organs and trigger dying.

(iii) Nipah virus

— Nipah virus is a virus present in animals however may have an effect on people.

— Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae household are the pure host of Nipah virus. Nipah virus often transmits from contaminated bats and different animals to people and may also be transmitted instantly between folks.

— There is presently no remedy or vaccine obtainable for Nipah virus, nevertheless a number of candidate merchandise are below improvement. Early intensive supportive care can enhance survival.

(iv) Lysosomal storage issues (LSDs)

— Lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) are a various group of over 70 uncommon, inherited metabolic circumstances that current vital diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, particularly in genetically numerous and resource-limited settings like India.

— LSDs trigger a buildup of poisonous supplies within the physique’s cells. According to the Cleveland Clinic, sufferers with LSDs lack sure enzymes or the enzyme activator, a substance that helps the enzyme work. In their absence, the affected person’s physique fails to interrupt down fat and sugars, which might accumulate and be dangerous.

— There are remedies for less than about 7% of uncommon ailments. Most sufferers who’ve treatable circumstances additionally obtain remedy intermittently.

(v) Lymphatic Filariasis (LF)

— Elephantiasis, often known as lymphatic filariasis, is a disfiguring illness attributable to an infection with nematodes (roundworms) from the Filariodidea household, that are transmitted by the bites of contaminated mosquitos.

— Lymphatic Filariasis (LF) is a disfiguring and debilitating illness that primarily develops in childhood. India goals to remove lymphatic filariasis (LF), typically often called elephantiasis, by 2027.

— The illness is transmitted by the chew of a Culex mosquito that breeds in unclean or polluted water.

(vi) Bleeding eye virus

— MVD, typically often called the “bleeding eye virus,” is without doubt one of the worst ailments able to infecting people. Case mortality charges in earlier outbreaks ranged from 24% to 88%, relying on the virus sort and case care.

— Marburg is a filovirus, identical to Ebola. Both infections are clinically similar and, whereas uncommon, can generate high-fatality epidemics.

— The first recognised MVD outbreak occurred in Marburg, Germany, in 1967. Following that, successive outbreaks have largely been recorded all through Africa, most lately in Tanzania, Ghana, and now Rwanda.

(vii) Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM)

— PAM is a uncommon mind an infection attributable to Naegleria fowleri, additionally known as ‘brain-eating amoeba’. The first case of PAM in India was reported in 1971, and the primary case in Kerala was reported in 2016. From 2016 to 2023, the state had solely eight instances. Last yr, Kerala had 36 instances and 9 deaths. PAM is attributable to a distinct class of amoeba, which is present in mud and soil.

— Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba or single-celled residing organism, is the reason for PAM. It is discovered worldwide in heat, recent soil and water, and it infects people when it enters the physique by the nostril. It grows effectively at temperatures as excessive as 115°F (46°C), and it might endure transient publicity to heat temperatures. Warm freshwater environments together with lakes and rivers, swimming swimming pools, splash pads, surf parks, and different leisure areas with little or no chlorination are dwelling to amoeba.

— People can’t get contaminated with Naegleria fowleri from consuming water contaminated with the amoeba. PAM can also be non-communicable.

#26. Space Missions in News

(i) Voyager 1

— Launched in 1977, Voyager 1 is without doubt one of the most essential house missions ever undertaken. It was initially despatched to check the outer planets, together with Jupiter and Saturn, nevertheless it went far past its preliminary objective. Today, it’s the most distant human-made object in house, travelling by interstellar house at excessive velocity.

— Its position has developed. Currently, Voyager 1 serves as an asset for scientists to study extra about interstellar house circumstances and the heliosphere, the realm the place the Sun has no affect. Together with its sister spacecraft, Voyager 2, it’s the solely probe that may ship direct data from this beforehand unstudied area.

— The major motivation for turning off the instrument suite was fairly apparent. Voyager 1 had run out of energy to function all of its techniques. The spacecraft is supplied with a radioisotope thermoelectric generator that utilises the warmth generated by decaying plutonium and transforms it into electrical energy. The vitality stage, nevertheless, has declined step by step for the reason that probes had been launched; about 4 watts disappear yearly.

(ii) Vikram-1 launcher

— Among Skyroot’s many small launch vehicle projects, Vikram-1 is a multi-stage launch vehicle with solid and liquid fuel-based engines designed for launching satellites weighing up to 350kg to low earth orbit. The low earth orbit is the area of house from 160 km to 2,000 km above the floor of Earth. The variety of satellites being launched on this area has skyrocketed in recent times, with many being the Starlink communication satellites.

— What makes Vikram-1 completely different is that the rocket is product of carbon composite as a substitute of metals, and homes a 3D-printed indigenously made engine — making its manufacturing and meeting simpler, faster and cheaper.

— The launch automobile has been named to honour Dr Vikram Sarabhai, thought of to be the daddy of the Indian house programme, and its propulsion techniques honour a number of different scientific greats — the stable propulsion system known as Kalam, the liquid Raman, and the cryogenic Dhawan.

(iii) OSIRIS-REx mission

— OSIRIS-REx is the primary U.S. mission to gather a pattern from an asteroid. It returned to Earth on Sept. 24, 2023, to drop off a capsule with materials from asteroid Bennu.

— After dropping off the pattern capsule by Earth’s environment, the spacecraft was renamed OSIRIS-APEX and despatched on a brand new mission to discover asteroid Apophis in 2029.

(iv) Artemis II mission

— Artemis II builds on the success of the uncrewed Artemis I in 2022, and will display a broad vary of capabilities wanted on deep house missions. The Artemis II check flight can be NASA’s first mission with crew aboard the SLS (Space Launch System) rocket and Orion spacecraft.

Artemis II mission

— This was the primary time people journey past low-Earth orbit and circle the Moon for the reason that remaining Apollo mission in 1972.

— The crew contains Nasa astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, and Christina Koch, together with Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen. Together, they may journey aboard the Orion spacecraft, which can loop across the Moon earlier than returning to Earth. The mission is designed to check techniques and procedures wanted for future lunar landings.

(v) LVM-3

— LVM-3, earlier known as Geosynchronous Launch Vehicle Mark 3 or GSLV Mk 3, makes use of stable, liquid, in addition to cryogenic-fuel primarily based engines to place as much as 8,000 kg in low earth orbit (as much as an altitude of two,000 km from Earth’s floor) and as much as 4,000 kg in geosynchronous orbit (about 36,000 km).

— The GSLV-Mk3 rocket was later tailored in 2022, amid the Russia-Ukraine battle, to launch 72 OneNet satellites in two launches to low earth orbit, prompting the change in title of the rocket. The GSLV title implied it was meant to deposit satellites solely to the geosynchronous orbit, however the OneNet missions confirmed that this rocket might be used for different functions as effectively.

(vi) Sentinel-6B

— Sentinel-6B was launched from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. It is an ocean-tracking satellite tv for pc with six onboard science devices that can measure the rising sea ranges and its impacts on the planet.

— Sentinel-6B will orbit Earth at a velocity of seven.2 km per second, finishing one revolution each 112 minutes.

— Sentinel-6B is a joint mission between the United States’ NASA and NOAA, and the European Space Agency; it’s the newest in a collection of satellites launched for the reason that Nineteen Nineties, primarily by NASA, to measure the sea-level modifications from house. Data from Sentinel-6B is predicted to enhance the accuracy of climate forecasts, together with storm and flood predictions, enabling directors to make higher real-time selections to safeguard public property and defend coastal infrastructure.

(vii) ESCAPADE

ESCAPADE is the primary multi-spacecraft orbital science mission to the Red Planet. Its twin orbiters will conduct simultaneous observations from a number of locations round Mars. The measurements will disclose how the planet responds to house climate in actual time, in addition to how the Martian magnetosphere modifications over time.

ESCAPADE will examine how Mars’ magnetic discipline directs particle fluxes across the planet, how vitality and momentum are transferred from the photo voltaic wind by the magnetosphere, and what processes govern the stream of vitality and matter into and out of the Martian environment.

(viii) Vyommitra

— Vyommitra is India’s first humanoid robotic developed by ISRO to help in human house missions. With human-like expressions, speech, and intelligence, Vyommitra stands on the coronary heart of Gaganyaan, India’s maiden human spaceflight programme.

— The ISRO unveiled Vyommitra in early 2020. The title is derived from Sanskrit — “Vyoma” which means house, and “Mitra” which means good friend — actually, “friend in space”. — This humanoid robotic is designed to behave as an clever, anthropomorphic companion for astronauts, dealing with each mechanical duties and communication duties aboard India’s crewed spacecraft.

(ix) NISAR mission

— The satellite tv for pc was launched on the GSLV-F16 and put in a 734 km solar synchronous orbit — an orbit wherein the satellite tv for pc reaches over a spot on the identical time every day. The satellite tv for pc will scan the whole globe each 12 days, offering a collection of very detailed photographs of the Earth’s floor.

— NISAR, which stands for NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar, will present an unprecedented view of the planet. Weighing 2,392 kg it is going to be the primary satellite tv for pc ever to look at the Earth in two frequencies — NASA’s L-band and ISRO’s S-band. “Each system’s signal is sensitive to different sizes of features on Earth’s surface, and each specializes in measuring different attributes, such as moisture content, surface roughness, and motion,” in keeping with NASA.

#26. Hydrogen as gasoline

— Hydrogen is appealing because it burns cleanly: when combined with oxygen in a fuel cell, it produces electricity and releases only water vapour as exhaust. Unlike batteries, which should be recharged, hydrogen could be refueled shortly — very similar to petrol or diesel — making it engaging for long-haul vehicles, buses, ships, and doubtlessly even planes.

— The greatest problem in implementing hydrogen as gasoline is its low density. At room temperature, one kilogram of hydrogen would fill about 11 cubic meters — the dimensions of a small bed room. Petrol, against this, packs the identical mass into simply over a liter.

#27. Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)

— MOFs are a category of supplies composed of metallic ions related by natural molecules, forming a three-dimensional community with giant, porous cavities. This design permits gases and liquids to stream by, making MOFs extremely adaptable for numerous purposes.

— Metals can kind bonds in a number of instructions, and thus metallic ions are the anchors right here, like joints in a scaffolding. Organic molecules hyperlink them collectively. Organic molecules are versatile, can kind rings and chains, and could be designed to have chemical teams with particular properties.

— The distinctive properties of MOFs have led to their software in numerous fields:

(i) Water harvesting: MOFs can extract water from dry air, providing a possible resolution for water-scarce areas.

(ii) Pollutant Removal: They can filter out dangerous substances like PFAS from water, addressing environmental contamination.

(iii) Carbon seize: MOFs are efficient in capturing carbon dioxide, aiding in efforts to mitigate local weather change.

(iv) Hydrogen storage: Their porous nature permits for the protected storage of hydrogen, essential for clear vitality purposes.

— Most MOFs are weak electrical conductors and so should not employed as conductors. Additionally, MOFs lack the chemical and mechanical stability required for long-term maritime corrosion safety.

#28. Doppler climate radars

— In radars, a beam of energy, called radio waves, is emitted from an antenna. When this beam strikes an object in the atmosphere, the vitality scatters in all instructions, with some reflecting instantly again to the radar.

— DWR can present data on each the place of targets in addition to their motion. It does this by monitoring the ‘phase’ of transmitted radio wave pulses; section which means the form, place, and type of these pulses. As computer systems measure the shift in section between the unique pulse and the obtained echo, the motion of raindrops could be calculated, and it’s attainable to inform whether or not the precipitation is transferring towards or away from the radar.

— In India, DWR of various frequencies — S-band, C-band and X-band — are generally utilized by the IMD to trace the motion of climate techniques and cloud bands, and gauge rainfall over its protection space of about 500 km. The radars information meteorologists, significantly in occasions of maximum climate occasions like cyclones and related heavy rainfall. An X-band radar is used to detect thunderstorms and lightning, whereas a C-band radar helps in cyclone monitoring.

#29. Measurement of pollution in Air Quality Monitoring Stations

— Particulate matter is measured using Beta Attenuation Monitors (BAM), which rely on the beta ray attenuation principle. A small Carbon-14 or Krypton-85 supply emits beta rays by a clear patch of filter tape. After air is drawn by and mud collects on the tape, the instrument re-measures the spot. Fewer beta rays go by, and the decline in sign is used to calculate PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations.

— Sulphur dioxide is measured by UV fluorescence, which detects the weak glow SO2 emits below ultraviolet mild.

— Ozone is measured by UV photometry, which tracks how a lot UV mild it absorbs.

— Carbon monoxide is measured utilizing non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) absorption, primarily based on how a lot infrared mild CO absorbs.

— Nitrogen oxides are measured by chemiluminescence, the place devices detect the faint mild produced when the gases react with ozone contained in the analyser.

— Ammonia is measured utilizing optical spectroscopy primarily based on its attribute absorption of sunshine.

#30. NUTEC Plastics

— NUTEC Plastics is the IAEA’s flagship initiative to deal with the worldwide problem of plastic air pollution.

— It brings collectively governments and companions from everywhere in the world to fight plastic air pollution on two fronts: on the supply by introducing progressive know-how to boost plastic recycling, and within the ocean, the place the vast majority of plastic trash finally ends up.

— Nuclear science and know-how can play a significant position on each fronts. Irradiation can be utilized to deal with current plastics and make them appropriate for reuse, extending current recycling potential and permitting for broader and higher-value reuse, whereas nuclear science is used to determine, hint, and monitor plastics within the ocean, significantly microplastics.

#31. Green crackers

— Scientists sought to reformulate these mixtures by reducing toxic metals and introducing additives that suppress dust. Green crackers, branded as SWAS (Safe Water Releaser), STAR (Safe Thermite Cracker) and SAFAL (Safe Minimal Aluminium), sometimes exchange barium nitrate with potassium nitrate or strontium salts, restrict aluminium content material, and add compounds like zeolite and iron oxide to seize soot.

— These compounds produce good colors and loud bangs but additionally emit wonderful particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) — all main contributors to smog.

#32. Brown dwarfs

— Brown dwarfs are curious celestial our bodies that share some similarities with stars and others with planets. For occasion, these objects kind like stars from collapsing clouds of gasoline and mud. However, they don’t have sufficient mass to persistently fuse hydrogen, a course of that heats a star and makes it shine. That is why they’re typically often called “failed stars”.

— They have atmospheres much like gasoline large planets akin to Jupiter and Saturn. Their atmospheres can encompass clouds and molecules like H2O. Brown dwarfs may also be as much as 70 occasions extra large than Jupiter.

— Brown dwarfs could be tough to detect as they’re chilly and faint. As a outcome, astronomers sometimes seek for brown dwarfs orbiting companion stars, which frequently burn brighter. This additionally helps them examine these celestial our bodies as a result of if a brown dwarf is a part of a a number of system with a brighter star, the possibilities are they had been shaped out of the identical materials, on the identical place and time.

#33. Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

— The ministry of Defence (MoD) said that the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted the first flight-tests of an Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS). The check was carried out off the coast of Odisha, wherein three completely different targets had been concurrently destroyed at completely different ranges and altitudes.

— The IADWS is a multi-layered air defence system, which incorporates three parts — Quick Reaction Surface to Air Missiles (QRSAM), the superior Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) missiles, and a high-power laser-based Directed Energy Weapon (DEW).

#34. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

— SMRs are superior nuclear reactors with energy technology capacities starting from lower than 30 MWe to over 300 MWe. It affords a flexible, scalable, and cost-effective various to conventional large nuclear reactors.

— SMRs’ modular design permits factory-based manufacture, reducing building deadlines and prices, making them appropriate for each on-grid and off-grid purposes, together with distant deployment. India is extensively researching Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) as a essential part of its vitality transition technique, with the objective of attaining net-zero emissions whereas sustaining vitality safety.

#35. GLP-1

— GLP-1 is each an incretin hormone and a neurotransmitter. In physiology, it’s secreted from the small gut and from the hindbrain after we eat a meal.

— It travels to the pancreas, the place it helps to control our blood sugar by rising insulin and reducing glucagon. This is what we name the incretin impact. This impact is blood glucose-dependent, which means it is just if the blood glucose is elevated that it has an impact right here.

— GLP-1 additionally impacts centres within the mind related to management of starvation and satiety, to successfully inform us that we now have had sufficient to eat and have to cease consuming.

— There are receptors that GLP-1 binds to in lots of organs within the physique, and GLP-1 additionally has useful results in lots of of those organs, such because the kidney, liver, and cardiovascular system. GLP-1’s results within the pancreas and mind are the essential ones to assist management blood glucose and physique weight.

🚨 Click Here to learn the UPSC Essentials journal for May 2026. Share your views and strategies within the remark field or at manas.srivastava@indianexpress.com🚨 

Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay up to date with the most recent UPSC articles by becoming a member of our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and observe us on Instagram and X.