Distribution of establishments and authors
The establishments in the literature could be categorized into 4 varieties: universities, institutes, authorities businesses, and enterprises, accounting for 68%, 24%, 6%, and 2% of all establishments, respectively (Fig. 3). The highest publication quantity comes from Chinese establishments, with the prime 5 being Guizhou Normal University, Guizhou University, Southwest University, Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, and Central South University of Forestry and Technology. The prime 5 worldwide establishments are the University of Copenhagen, University of Exeter, Cranfield University, Rothamsted Research, Algoma University.
Distribution of research establishment varieties.
The fundamental contributing authors embody Kangning Xiong (197 articles), Zhongfa Zhou (28 articles), Yongkuan Chi (26 articles), Baoqing Hu (25 articles), and Weici Su (25 articles) (Fig. 4). Highly cited authors embody Kangning Xiong (4321 citations), Weici Su (1821 citations), Kelin Wang (1498 citations), Zhongcheng Jiang (984 citations), and Jianhua Cao (921 citations) (Fig. 4). The fundamental educational collaboration groups embody the group led by Kangning Xiong, Yongkuan Chi, and Ziqi Liu, specializing in applied sciences and fashions for KD control, ecological industries, and poverty alleviation. The group led by Zhongcheng Jiang, Jianhua Cao, and Weiqun Luo conducts research on karst geomorphology, cave useful resource improvement and safety, water and soil useful resource utilization, built-in KD control, and responses to international local weather change. The group led by Quanhou Dai, Youjin Yan, and Xudong Peng focuses on soil erosion processes and mechanisms, soil and water conservation, and ecological restoration. The group led by Xiebao Wu, Xinqiu Dan, and Zhaobai Wu focuses on monitoring KD, prevention and control planning, and forestry planning. The group led by Kelin Wang, Yuemin Yue, and Mingyang Zhang focuses on modifications in karst panorama patterns, ecological processes, and ecosystem companies (Fig. 4).
a The prime 10 authors in phrases of the literature. b The prime 10 authors in phrases of the quotation frequency. c The collaborative authorship mapping in phrases of the literature based mostly on WoS, Scopus, PubMed, and CNKI.
Research establishments and authors in South China dominate in publication output, main international research traits. A discrepancy was noticed between the authors’ publication output and quotation rankings, indicating that Kangning Xiong (Guizhou Normal University), Weici Su (Chongqing Normal University), Kelin Wang (Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences), Zhongcheng Jiang, and Jianhua Cao (Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences) are the most influential specialists in KD control research. Significant segmentation and inadequate connectivity have been recognized amongst creator teams. Authors from North China and Western international locations are scattered and fail to kind cohesive clusters. Greater efforts are wanted to strengthen collaboration amongst creator teams, in addition to between authors from South and North China and between Eastern and Western international locations.
The karst areas in North China are characterised by a mid-warm temperate local weather and are predominantly composed of dolomite, which reveals considerably decrease erosion depth in comparison with southern limestone areas, with dry mountain valleys as a consultant panorama38,39,40. Exposed rocks, infertile soils, sparse vegetation, and a single-industry economic system not solely hinder native socioeconomic improvement but additionally pose important threats to biodiversity conservation (Fig. 5). However, systematic research and efficient methods for controlling KD in northern areas are missing, highlighting the have to provoke targeted research on KD control in North China.
a, b KD panorama in Huangtuling small watershed.
Research in different karst areas worldwide primarily focuses on geology, geomorphology, hydrology, and soil sciences41,42,43,44,45, with restricted consideration to KD control. However, KD points have emerged in areas akin to the Mediterranean46, North America47, Australia48, New Zealand49, and Southeast Asia50, highlighting the potential for worldwide collaboration on KD control.
Distribution of research content material
The literature on KD control could be categorized into principle research (25%), expertise improvement (14%), mannequin building (20%), utility demonstration (24%), and monitoring and analysis (17%) (Fig. 6). Theory research on KD control are primarily present in journal articles, theses, and convention papers. Technology improvement is predominantly mirrored in patents and technical achievements, whereas mannequin building is steadily introduced in journal articles, newspapers, and theses. Application demonstrations are principally printed in yearbooks, journal articles, and newspapers, and monitoring and analysis are targeted on journal articles and theses. These traits spotlight the educational and skilled nature of theoretical research, the utilized orientation of technological improvement, the educational worth and societal affect of mannequin building, the effectiveness and progress of utility demonstrations, and the standardized and scientific strategy of monitoring and analysis. The dominance of theoretical research and utility demonstrations in KD research signifies the have to strengthen the improvement and innovation of KD control applied sciences, the building and promotion of fashions, and the enchancment and refinement of monitoring and analysis techniques in future utilized research.
Distribution of research content material in the literature.
Distribution of hotspots and traits
High-frequency key phrases point out that karst desertification (2247), karst (492), complete control (439), karst desertification control (427), karst areas (354), countermeasures (243), present scenario (211), Guizhou (194), trigger (166), and vegetation restoration (151) are research hotspots (Fig. 7). Soil (52), vegetation (48), and naked slopes (9) are key pure elements for figuring out KD and function the basis for control efforts. Studies on soil erosion (124), soil natural carbon (35), and soil vitamins (19) give attention to the physicochemical properties of soil, facilitating vegetation choice for restoration. Land use (75), ecological reconstruction (23), and poverty alleviation (15) reveal that rational improvement and utilization of sources whereas making certain safety have turn into key elements of KD control. Soil and water conservation (74), afforestation expertise (28), and control expertise (23) mirror main control methods, whereas expertise integration (22) and expertise techniques (15) symbolize rising traits. Comprehensive control (439), fashions (125), and control mannequin (16) spotlight the give attention to typical control fashions, mannequin integration, and industrial fashions as present hotspots and traits. Restoration efforts have targeted on forest vegetation restoration51, soil and water conservation52, and ecological agriculture53 by way of control fashions and pilot demonstrations. Ecosystem companies (35), ecological {industry} (32), and ecological results (28) point out that demonstration tasks have yielded important advantages for enhancing ecosystems and human well-being. Among these, the ecological {industry} emphasizes the utility of new theories and applied sciences and the response to insurance policies, addressing gaps in mechanisms, expertise, and market assist54,55. Benefit analysis (61), GIS (42), distant sensing (37), analysis (29), and monitoring (11) mirror developments in monitoring applied sciences. Remote sensing and GIS have been utilized to watch KD56, neighborhood dynamics57, and the spatial distribution and variation of organic options58, offering important information for evaluating control outcomes.
Keyword distribution based mostly on WoS, Scopus, PubMed, and CNKI.
Research levels division
The annual publication quantity exhibits a fluctuating development pattern from 1995 to 2023, which could be divided into three levels (Fig. 8, Table 2). The first stage, from 1995 to 2000, is characterised by fewer than 5 annual publications, marking the preliminary improvement. The second stage, from 2001 to 2008, noticed a fast enhance in publication quantity, marking the fast improvement. The third stage, from 2008 to 2023, exhibits a fluctuating pattern with a mean of over 150 publications per yr, marking secure improvement with more and more refined and modern research matters.
Annual distribution of publications on KD control from 1995 to 2023.
Major international developments and landmark achievements
Theoretical research serves as the basic foundation for KD control, providing mechanistic insights and guiding the course of expertise improvement. Technology improvement interprets theoretical findings into apply, develops key applied sciences based mostly on principle, and gives technical assist for mannequin building. Model building integrates principle and expertise to develop replicable options and guides the structure of demonstration tasks. Application demonstration checks the feasibility of KD control fashions, whereas the ensuing advantages are topic to monitoring and analysis. Monitoring and analysis quantify the effectiveness of control by way of the building of multidimensional indicator techniques, thereby driving iterative enhancements in control tasks. In abstract, principle research, expertise improvement, mannequin building, utility demonstration, and monitoring and analysis collectively kind a systematic framework that hyperlinks upstream basic research with downstream sensible evaluation in KD control (Fig. 9).
Conceptual framework of 5 dimensions in KD control.
Theory research
(1) Based on the ecological traits of KD, the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation development environments was recognized, and plant restoration methods have been proposed.
The soil layers in KD areas are exceptionally shallow and wealthy in calcium. The interlacing of rocks and skinny soil layers creates numerous and extremely heterogeneous microhabitats59,60. Additionally, as a result of uneven precipitation distribution, karst desertification areas typically face a risk of drought, making water provide in the soil much more unstable61. Therefore, vegetation restoration methods for KD areas have been studied extensively, together with research on floor and subsurface soil erosion62, soil nutrient stoichiometry63, soil succession mechanisms64, rainfall-runoff processes65, plant range66, local weather change67, and the properties of fissured soils and water in addition to plant adaptation mechanisms68. Vegetation with lithophilic, calciphilic, drought-resistant traits and well-developed root techniques has been proposed for cultivation69. Proposed vegetation restoration methods embody sloped farmland conversion70, combining pure and synthetic forests71, and integrating agroforestry with soil and water conservation72. For instance, in nil and potential KD areas, shade-tolerant herbaceous crops are beneficial, whereas in reasonably affected areas, crops from the Rosaceae and Berberidaceae households are used for vegetation restoration73. Vegetation restoration methods, applied by way of introduction, cultivation, and safety measures, have elevated vegetation protection, attaining the objectives of soil and water conservation and controling KD. Most vegetation restoration methods contain a mix of plantations and pure forests, however their potential suppressive results on native communities stay unclear. Therefore, future research ought to examine the carbon sequestration effectivity, biodiversity upkeep capability, and disturbance tolerance thresholds of completely different methods to disclose their suitability below regional hydro-soil situations.
(2) Based on the classification and grading system of KD, completely different ranges of restoration fashions have been applied, selling the in-depth utility of context-specific control theories.
The classification of KD takes under consideration traits akin to rock publicity, vegetation cowl, soil cowl, and slope, reflecting the variations in floor traits throughout completely different ranges of KD9. Based on KD classification, context-specific restoration fashions have been applied. On depth and excessive depth KD land, a blended soil and water conservation mannequin utilizing Juniperus chinensis L. and Dodonaea viscosa Jacquem. has been applied. These species are drought-resistant and adaptable to poor soils, forming a mixed-layer forest with each tree and shrub layers74. On average and intense KD land with sure slopes, a medicinal-type restoration mannequin is applied by planting Lonicera japonica Thunb., which might obtain good financial advantages in a brief interval75. On karst mountainous land with deep soil layers in the average and slight KD land, a blended mannequin of mountain Zenia insignis Chun and Dendrocalamus minor (McClure) L.C. Chia & H.L. has been applied, forming blended forests that speed up vegetation restoration76. On potential, slight, and average KD land, significantly in dry, scorching river valleys, an financial ecological forest mannequin based mostly on Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. has been applied, attaining a win-win scenario for each financial and ecological advantages77. In abstract, KD control methods undertake a technical strategy based mostly on acceptable tree species mixtures in response to land traits at completely different ranges, implementing context-specific technical measures whereas balancing each ecological and financial advantages in the total analysis. Although technical adaptation fashions based mostly on KD grading have been extensively adopted in control tasks, their scale dependence stays controversial. Previous classification requirements based mostly on rock publicity and slope have ignored the regulatory roles of soil texture and fertility, water retention capability, and soil microorganisms and fauna in vegetation restoration. Therefore, investigating vegetation restoration methods below multi-scale coupling is a key course for future research.
(3) Based on ecological economics principle, the idea of ecological industries for KD control has been proposed, resulting in the ecological and financial improvement in KD areas.
In karst poverty-stricken areas, financial underdevelopment has led to exploitative practices, which have exacerbated ecosystem degradation and the unfold of KD, making a vicious cycle of “KD–poverty–KD”78,79. Therefore, in South China, by way of the integration of ecological economics principle and KD control, a diversified ecological economic system system has been developed, together with ecological round agriculture and livestock farming, eco-tourism, bioenergy, and biopharmaceutical industries80,81,82. In specific, the ecological round industries, by establishing an entire industrial chain from manufacturing—processing—vitality—markets, require modern purposes of applied sciences in farming, livestock, processing, and vitality18,83,84. This promotes shut cooperation amongst numerous stakeholders, together with farmers, companies, and the authorities, making a synergistic impact for enhancing human well-being and ecological restoration, successfully breaking the vicious cycle. In conclusion, the ecological {industry} mannequin based mostly on multi-stakeholder, multi-department, and multi-disciplinary cooperation has enhanced the compatibility of contributors and improved control effectivity. However, the sustainability of the present ecological {industry} faces important challenges, primarily as a result of short-term financial incentives might undermine long-term ecological conservation objectives. Therefore, ecological merchandise ought to steadiness each financial and ecological advantages, with the realization of their worth serving as a driving drive for the improvement of the ecological {industry}.
(4) By analyzing karst ecosystem companies, the theoretical and sensible assist for enhancing ecosystem companies in KD control has been revealed.
Forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, wetland ecosystem, and cultivated land ecosystem in karst areas immediately or not directly present a various vary of companies to human society, encompassing a number of features akin to meals provide, vitality provision, uncooked materials manufacturing, water conservation, soil and water retention, windbreak and sand fixation, local weather regulation, and greenhouse fuel emission discount85,86,87. Currently, research on KD focuses totally on enhancing ecosystem companies88,89. However, the fragility of KD ecosystems and disturbances attributable to human actions have restricted the enchancment of ecosystem companies90. Therefore, research on scientifically managing ecosystem companies has been carried out, offering theoretical assist for evaluating and quantifying ecosystem service values, resolving service conflicts, and optimizing useful resource use and administration33,91,92. In apply, optimizing forest spatial construction and enhancing biodiversity have turn into key approaches to enhancing ecosystem companies93,94,95. Enhancing ecosystem companies, spinoff industries of ecological control, and ecological merchandise has turn into the focus of KD control96. However, present research primarily focuses on enhancing particular person ecosystem companies, with inadequate exploration of mechanisms for multi-service synergies. Therefore, it’s essential to develop ecosystem service movement fashions to determine key trade-off nodes, in addition to to assemble fashions for optimizing ecosystem features and outline technological pathways to boost the provide capability of ecological merchandise.
Technology improvement
(1) By implementing agricultural, biotechnology, and engineering applied sciences, the patterns of KD characterised by uncovered rocks, improper cultivation, and soil erosion have been altered.
Agricultural applied sciences embody farming methods, breeding methods, water-saving methods, soil cultivation methods, intercropping and rotation methods. For instance, grass planting methods, which contain deciding on acceptable grass species, floor remedy, seeding, and subsequent administration, haven’t solely slowed down KD but additionally supplied forage for grazing livestock, altering the conventional patterns of uncovered rocks attributable to cultivation97,98. Ecological restoration applied sciences embody vegetation restoration methods, returning farmland to forests methods, mountain closure for afforestation methods, land restoration methods, and biodiversity conservation methods. For instance, the return of farmland to forest methods has not solely elevated vegetation protection but additionally affected the supply-demand steadiness of agricultural water and soil sources in the reclaimed areas, selling resource-saving agriculture and altering unsustainable farming practices25,99. Engineering applied sciences embody water conservancy and soil safety methods, vitality methods, terracing methods, slope safety methods, and sprinkler and drip irrigation methods (Fig. 10). For instance, slope-to-terrace methods forestall soil erosion on slopes and enhance arable land by utilizing topographic surveys, terrace design, and water supply provide100. In abstract, KD control applied sciences successfully scale back KD, improve land useful resource availability, and promote the sustainable improvement of agricultural manufacturing. However, the utility of single applied sciences faces challenges in long-term upkeep and lacks sustainability. Therefore, focused coupling and integration of control applied sciences have turn into a improvement pattern in complete KD control.
a Small-scale water conservancy amenities: water cellars. b Agricultural complete improvement: slope to terrace. c Rural vitality facility: biogas digester.
(2) By implementing cultivation expertise techniques, ecological livestock expertise techniques, and ecological industrial expertise techniques, the synergistic operational effectivity of numerous applied sciences has been optimized.
The KD control expertise system integrates particular person applied sciences right into a complete system. For instance, the ryegrass cultivation expertise system integrates a number of technological processes, together with land preparation, breeding, sowing, fertilization, irrigation, weeding, pest and illness control, and harvesting101. KD mountain mango cultivation expertise system integrates methods akin to selection choice, transplanting and planting, water and fertilizer administration, tree administration, fruit bagging, and pest and illness control102. The ecological recycling expertise system deeply integrates administration applied sciences with the idea of ecological recycling, encompassing processes from soil enrichment and planting to biogas improvement and built-in farming and processing103. In abstract, the expertise techniques show quite a few benefits, together with superior complete results, long-term sustainability, robust adaptability, and excessive effectivity. Therefore, the synergistic results of numerous applied sciences must be absolutely utilized, and the utility and promotion of expertise techniques must be strongly advocated. Although these technological techniques have considerably improved control effectivity by way of multi-link integration, there stays room for enchancment in regulating carbon biking processes in KD areas. More critically, the present techniques lack proactive regulation of the coupled water-carbon processes in karst areas. Therefore, future efforts ought to give attention to constructing an built-in technological system encompassing carbon seize, sequestration, buying and selling, and vitality optimization, extending the synergistic results of these applied sciences to the international local weather change control context.
(3) By implementing control expertise integration at the county scale and the giant geomorphic regional scale, a powerful technological synergy has been achieved throughout the area.
At the county scale, typical control expertise integrations embody the “Six Measures for KD Control” mannequin in Yunnan, which mixes methods akin to forest closure and afforestation, terrace conversion, walnut financial forest cultivation, and ecological migration; the “Nongla” mannequin, which integrates forest closure and afforestation with the cultivation of premium medicinal herbs; and the “Gongcheng” mannequin, which mixes bio-hedges, pioneer neighborhood preparations, and intercropping of grain and money crops104. This county-scale governance expertise integration emphasizes specificity and effectiveness by deciding on, integrating, and optimizing acceptable applied sciences based mostly on regional geography, local weather, and ecological traits. At the giant geomorphic regional scale, a complete chain of expertise integration has been developed, encompassing expertise research and improvement, {industry} building, and profit analysis. Control applied sciences and demonstrations for plateau mountains, basins, and gorges have been linked with industrial applied sciences and demonstrations for biopharmaceuticals, bioenergy, and mountain tourism, creating an ecological {industry} mannequin and expertise integration demonstration for karst plateau KD control18. Through the integration of mechanism evaluation, expertise improvement, and industrial demonstration, a control mannequin and expertise integration system for karst subsidence basins has been established105. The control expertise integration at the giant geomorphic regional scale addresses the international and regional traits of KD by organically integrating localized control expertise outcomes, creating a powerful regional technological synergy. However, the generalizability of expertise integration at the county scale is usually questioned, whereas giant geomorphic regional integration tends to miss the heterogeneity of small watersheds. Therefore, it’s essential to develop a technical integration database for KD control, enabling region-specific allocation of applied sciences to deal with the lack of normal applicability in present expertise dissemination.
Model building
(1) Comprehensive control and ecological agriculture-oriented mannequin, karst grassland building and ecological animal husbandry-oriented mannequin, vegetation restoration and ecological reconstruction mannequin, karst soil and water conservation and fundamental farmland construction-oriented mannequin, karst water useful resource improvement and irrigated agriculture-oriented mannequin, and karst useful resource utilization and eco-tourism-oriented mannequin for the karst desertification control have been established.
The complete control and ecological agriculture-oriented mannequin includes planting conservation forests, financial forests, and fruit-bearing forests in the higher, center, and decrease reaches of watersheds, with optimized water engineering to implement a three-dimensional ecological financial system in mountainous areas51. The karst grassland building and ecological animal husbandry-oriented mannequin develops herbivorous animal husbandry based mostly on the precept of grass-livestock steadiness81. The vegetation restoration and ecological reconstruction mannequin targets small watersheds by planting market-oriented financial forests, establishing supporting water amenities, and reasonably growing herbivorous animal husbandry10 (Fig. 12). The karst soil and water conservation and fundamental farmland construction-oriented mannequin includes terrace conversion, supporting water tasks, and exploring a “terrace + technology + water conservancy + industry” pathway to prosperity106 (Fig. 11). The karst water useful resource improvement and irrigated agriculture-oriented mannequin collects rainwater, develops karst water irrigation, and implements water-saving irrigation agriculture107. The karst useful resource utilization and eco-tourism-oriented mannequin integrates ecological control with the cultivation of decorative timber, the improvement of tourism, and industrial restructuring to create a virtuous cycle of ecological and industrial improvement108. In abstract, KD control fashions are based mostly on elements akin to KD grade, ecological carrying capability, and useful resource endowments. They contemplate land use, ecological enchancment, and market demand, following a improvement pathway that features stipulations—theoretical foundations—technical approaches—mannequin promotion. The current fashions face challenges in sustaining ecological-economic steadiness, as the overexploitation of sources has led to the degradation of native ecosystems. In addition, excessive control prices and difficulties in sustaining outcomes stay important points. Therefore, it’s important to develop a extra scientific, environment friendly, and sustainable mannequin for ecological {industry} control.
a Vegetation restoration and ecological reconstruction-oriented mannequin. b karst soil and water conservation and fundamental farmland construction-oriented mannequin.
(2) A complete ecological–industrial control mannequin was constructed, forming a regional control mannequin integration technique of evolution mechanism—expertise integration—{industry} coupling—control demonstration—profit analysis.
The synergy between KD control and ecological industries operates in two methods: on one hand, implementing KD control measures gives high-quality useful resource situations for ecological {industry} improvement109; on the different hand, the improvement of ecological industries provides important technical assist and secure funding for KD control, selling additional control34,110. During its building, the ecological {industry} control mannequin developed a regional control integration technique comprising evolution mechanisms—technological integration—{industry} coupling— control demonstration – profit analysis54,111. For instance, based mostly on theories akin to the karst ecological degradation mechanism, vegetation adaptation mechanism, and soil erosion mechanism, key applied sciences akin to soil erosion control, vegetation optimization configuration, and cultivation of attribute ecological spinoff industries are built-in to implement built-in desertification control fashions, ecological spinoff {industry} cultivation, and large-scale demonstration10,18. In abstract, the ecological {industry} control mannequin not solely considerably enhances ecosystem stability but additionally gives ample ecological merchandise and companies, driving the optimization and upgrading of industrial buildings. However, present industrial fashions are inclined to rely excessively on a single kind of ecological product. Therefore, it’s obligatory to use advanced adaptive techniques principle to design diversified industrial networks and to develop an built-in and clever control mannequin.
Application demonstration
(1) Through investigation and evaluation of demonstration tasks for KD control, quite a few demonstration tasks with distinctive traits in numerous KD areas have been found.
The Guizhou Huajiang Demonstration Area, utilizing biogas as a hyperlink, has established a round {industry} improvement mannequin centered round financial forestry, grass planting, and courtyard farming112 (Fig. 12). The Pingguo Guohua Demonstration Area in Guangxi has developed a composite, three-dimensional ecological agricultural mannequin tailor-made to the peak-clustered depressions113. The Yunnan Geopark and Tourism Development Demonstration Project focuses on the safety of geological relics and ecological restoration, incorporating scientific training and geoscience tourism114. The Nanchuan Nanping Demonstration Area in Chongqing has developed a particular agricultural improvement mannequin that includes conventional Chinese medicinal herbs, fruit, livestock, and poultry115. The “Zuling” mannequin in Lechang City, Guangdong, has established an entire industrial mannequin comprising main enterprises, cooperatives, bases, and farmers116. These KD demonstration tasks, based mostly on the rational use of pure sources, incorporate wealthy regional traits. They undertake a diversified cooperation mannequin of “government + enterprises + farmers” and a round economic system mannequin of “ecological restoration + industrial development,” successfully integrating sources from all events to kind a synergistic governance drive. At current, most demonstration tasks yield important short-term advantages, however their long-term sustainability stays unsure. Therefore, it’s obligatory to determine built-in control demonstrations that hyperlink principle, expertise, and utility, as a way to overcome constraints on enhancing the high quality and effectivity of restoration tasks.
The karst desertification control effectiveness in Guanling–Zhenfeng Huajiang demonstration space in Guizhou of South China from 2000 to 2020.
(2) Analysis of the advantages of demonstration tasks for KD control has revealed important features in each ecological and human well-being outcomes.
The implementation of KD control demonstration tasks has led to a steady decline in KD in South China from 2000 to 2020, with the whole affected space lowering by 102,500 km² at a mean annual fee of 4900 km²/yr117. Notable tasks embody Guangxi Huanjiang County, which established 264.5 ha of afforestation and 591.6 ha of reforestation, growing the annual per capita earnings of impoverished households by 2000–4000 yuan118. In Guizhou’s Bijie Experimental Zone, 235,044 ha of KD have been handled, with forest protection growing from 14.9% to 60%, and soil conservation charges enhancing from 37.32% to 63.34%119. In Qiubei County, Yunnan, 4700 ha of grassland have been restored, producing over 25 million yuan in output by way of elevating Yunnan Gaofeng Yellow Cattle and lifting greater than 10,000 locals out of poverty120. KD control demonstration tasks have considerably diminished KD areas whereas creating in depth employment alternatives for native residents by way of the improvement of specialised ecological farming and animal husbandry. However, the cross-regional promotion of native attribute fashions is at present constrained by cultural and institutional boundaries, limiting the improvement of ecological sources, enchancment of ecological industrial chains, and enhancement of ecological product high quality. Therefore, it’s essential to determine key obstacles by way of comparative evaluation and steadily set up native attribute industrial clusters.
Monitoring and analysis
(1) Through an evaluation of monitoring strategies and indicators for KD control, it has been discovered that monitoring gives obligatory information assist for assessing the effectiveness of control measures.
There are numerous strategies for monitoring KD, however distant sensing stays the mainstream strategy for extracting data. For instance, there are research utilizing linear spectral unmixing strategies to retrieve the abundance of vegetation and uncovered rocks from hyperspectral tremendous main ion pictures121. Due to the weather conditions of karst areas and the low decision of sensors, integrating satellite tv for pc and UAV imagery for quantitative data extraction has turn into a well-liked monitoring technique122. This monitoring technique conducts common and systematic observations of managed areas, accumulating multidimensional information on vegetation restoration, soil erosion, and hydrological modifications, thereby enhancing the high quality of monitoring outcomes. The indicator system for monitoring KD primarily focuses on soil erosion123, vegetation protection124, and rock publicity125. To handle the advanced interaction between poverty and ecological degradation, the capability of the karst ecosystem to supply items and companies to society has additionally been included in the monitoring indicators126. In abstract, real-time monitoring of indicators and well timed changes to methods and strategies can forestall useful resource waste and delays. Although distant sensing provides broad protection, its restricted decision results in the missed detection of small-scale modifications. Ground monitoring information are correct however undergo from inadequate sampling density as a result of the advanced karst terrain. Therefore, it’s essential to develop multi-source information fusion algorithms to combine numerous monitoring information with floor measurements.
(2) Analysis of the profit analysis for KD control has revealed that the analysis system gives a measurement normal for adjusting control strategies and pathways.
The profit analysis system for KD control is comparatively well-developed in assessing each ecological and human well-being impacts. Ecological profit evaluations give attention to vegetation restoration127, soil and water conservation128, soil high quality129, carbon sequestration130, water useful resource carrying capability131, and afforestation advantages132. Human well-being evaluations give attention to agricultural and pastoral manufacturing133, social welfare134, family earnings135, and relocation web site choice136. In specific, the analysis of ecosystem companies, ecological industries, and ecological merchandise in key areas of KD control has turn into a research hotspot137. Additionally, analysis strategies embody radial foundation operate networks138 and ecosystem well being diagnostic indicator techniques139. These analysis indicators and strategies, supported by profit monitoring, precisely assess the precise impacts and effectiveness of control efforts. They determine current issues and shortcomings in control, offering particular and sensible suggestions for subsequent enhancements. However, present analysis strategies lack a complete framework that integrates pre-control environmental assessments, real-time monitoring and monitoring throughout control, and complete evaluations of post-control results. Current evaluations give attention to ecological and financial dimensions however overlook social and cultural elements. Therefore, a complete analysis system incorporating rising dimensions akin to cultural resilience and intergenerational fairness warrants additional research.
Key scientific and technological points to be solved in the world
(1) To handle the scientific subject of vegetation restoration mechanisms in the binary three-dimensional construction of karst areas, it’s essential to make clear the coupling mechanisms between floor and subsurface water–soil processes at a number of dimensions and scales, and to develop vegetation restoration methods that mix water conservation, useful resource optimization, and soil safety.
Current research primarily focuses on the dynamic relationships between floor soil erosion, elevation, soil natural matter, soil thickness, planting density, vegetation varieties, groundwater utilization, and vegetation development140,141,142,143. However, vegetation restoration lacks research on the multidimensional and multiscale coupling of floor and subsurface water–soil processes. Therefore, future research on KD ought to give attention to exploring the interactions between floor and subsurface water–soil processes throughout vegetation restoration, and implement methods that mix water conservation, useful resource optimization, and soil safety. In phrases of water conservation, it’s important to determine further water sources and choose crops with low water necessities, drought resistance, excessive calcium tolerance, and adaptability to poor soils. For soil safety, crops must be chosen that may enhance the soil situations in rocky environments.
(2) To handle the scientific subject of optimizing ecosystem features in KD control, it’s essential to make clear the mechanisms of construction–operate and service enhancement, reveal the trade-offs/synergies in ecosystem companies, and develop fashions for ecosystem operate optimization and technical pathways for enhancing ecological product provide capability.
The restoration and enhancement of ecosystem features in KD areas lie in a deep understanding of their structural composition, adopted by scientific optimization to maximise service features. Previous research have developed ecosystem cascading frameworks, constructed ecosystem prediction fashions, and built-in ecosystem companies with agroforestry control fashions to enhance ecosystem structural stability, improve service features, and promote regional synergy32,144,145,146. However, present research nonetheless faces limitations in spatial scale regarding ecosystem service trade-offs/synergies, unclear driving mechanisms, and uncertainties in research outcomes33. Therefore, future research on KD control ought to undertake multi-scale dynamic research strategies to quantify the relationship between ecosystem construction and operate, and reveal the mechanisms of service trade-offs/synergies and operate optimization. Additionally, fashions must be developed to systematically optimize ecosystem features, specializing in provide–demand dynamics, stakeholders, and market transactions. Moreover, technical pathways must be proposed to boost the provide capability of ecological merchandise, addressing the bottlenecks in function-driven enhancement of ecological product provide capability147.
(3) To handle the frontier scientific subject of learn how to understand the worth of ecological merchandise and drive the formation of ecological industries in KD control, it’s essential to make clear the mechanisms of ecological product worth manufacturing, demand, and provide, reveal the chain mechanism of ecological product worth realization—ecological {industry} formation—rural ecological {industry} revitalization, and develop fashions and pathways for rural ecological {industry} revitalization and ecological product worth realization.
The ecological merchandise generated by the karst desertification control, akin to water, soil, grass, forest and fruits, have necessary financial and social values, which might present diversified sources of earnings and employment alternatives for villages, kind ecological industries with regional traits and aggressive benefits55,148. By integrating ecological merchandise akin to specialised and environment friendly forests, grassland livestock farming, agroforestry, and mountain tourism in KD control, a scaled and specialised composite system for the ecological {industry} in KD could be developed to drive the development of the ecological {industry}149. However, these research on ecological product worth realization primarily give attention to the provide aspect, with inadequate consideration given to the demand aspect. Furthermore, most research give attention to enhancing the realization of ecological product worth to drive the improvement of ecological industries, however there’s a lack of research linking this with enhancements in social well-being and ecological advantages150. Therefore, future research on KD control ought to make clear the mechanisms of ecological product worth manufacturing, demand, and provide on the demand aspect, reveal the chain mechanism of ecological product worth realization—ecological {industry} formation—rural ecological {industry} revitalization, and set up a mannequin for rural ecological {industry} revitalization and ecological product worth realization that includes scientific analysis—market-based operations—ecological {industry} improvement.
(4) To handle the frontier scientific subject of enhancing carbon sequestration capability in KD areas, an built-in technological system for carbon seize, carbon storage, carbon buying and selling, and vitality optimization must be developed.
The distinctive geological construction and hydrological situations of karst areas lead to important variations in carbon biking processes in comparison with non-karst areas. The carbon sequestration capability of karst areas is primarily influenced by elements akin to KD, water shortage, and human actions, which introduce important uncertainty and potential137,151. Studies have discovered that the karst water-carbon coupling cycle can promote vegetation development, enhancing carbon biking and carbon sequestration in karst areas152. However, there are deficiencies in the administration and utilization of water and carbon sources in KD areas. Therefore, future KD control ought to develop an built-in technological system encompassing carbon seize, carbon storage, carbon buying and selling, and vitality optimization to boost carbon sequestration capability.
(5) To handle the frontier scientific subject of the lack of optimized configuration in KD control applied sciences, an built-in expertise library system for KD control must be established.
Current KD control applied sciences primarily give attention to water and soil conservation by way of water-saving and soil-enrichment methods153. Some research suggest integrating methods for afforestation, financial forest and grassland planting, and specialised financial fruit tree cultivation, tailor-made for various ranges of KD154. However, this strategy to expertise integration solely considers the degree of KD, missing a complete evaluation of pure and cultural contexts, in addition to governance wants. Therefore, future KD control should combine and innovate organic, engineering, and agricultural applied sciences, establishing an built-in expertise library system to rationally mix and configure control applied sciences.
(6) To handle the frontier scientific subject of the pressing want for reworking KD control fashions, it’s important to enhance the ecological product market system and the ecological compensation system, and to construct an ecological {industry} control mannequin.
The distinctive KD control fashions in South China, akin to the mannequin of “Kenfu”, “Huajiang”, “Guohua”, and “Bijie”, have achieved important ends in enhancing regional ecological environments and supporting poverty alleviation efforts111. However, in KD areas, there are nonetheless points akin to low farmer participation in control, inadequate introduction of market mechanisms, excessive administration prices, and the issue of sustaining outcomes. Therefore, future KD control ought to enhance the ecological product market system and the ecological compensation system, and promote the integration and collaboration of ecological industries by way of technological innovation, data sharing, and useful resource sharing, to construct a extra scientific, environment friendly, and sustainable ecological {industry} control mannequin.
(7) To handle the frontier scientific subject of the lack of sustainability in KD control fashions, it’s important to combine ecological parts akin to mountains, water, forests, fields, lakes, grasslands, and wetlands to develop an built-in clever control mannequin.
KD control tasks have achieved important ends in areas akin to the Karst Plateau, peak-cluster depressions, fault basins, and valley areas18,54,105,155. However, as a result of the complexity of the pure and social setting in KD areas, the control fashions are inclined to give attention to short-term outcomes, missing long-term sustainability. This has led to restricted scalability of control fashions, sluggish ecological restoration charges, and unstable financial advantages. Currently, research on the integration of control applied sciences and fashions principally stays at the theoretical dialogue stage, with a scarcity of sensible utility research156. Therefore, future KD control ought to combine ecological parts akin to mountains, water, forests, fields, lakes, grasslands, and wetlands, and incorporate key frequent applied sciences. Additionally, trendy data applied sciences akin to large information and cloud platforms must be utilized to develop complete control options and set up an built-in clever control mannequin.
(8) To handle the growing issue of KD control, it’s important to disclose the socio-ecological system’s synergies in these areas and develop an built-in control demonstration mannequin combining principle, expertise, and utility.
The socio-ecological techniques in KD areas are fragile, and coupled with unsustainable human actions, the area has undergone extreme environmental degradation157,158. Whether the battle between the ecological setting and native human well-being could be successfully resolved is essential to the sustainable improvement of the area159,160. However, the understanding of the construction and optimization of the socio-ecological system, in addition to the trade-offs and synergies of its companies, stays inadequate in KD areas. Furthermore, this lack of understanding limits the evaluation of the worth of socio-ecological system companies in KD areas and hinders the improvement of control fashions aimed toward additional enhancing human well-being, making it troublesome to beat the constraints on enhancing the high quality and effectivity of control tasks. Therefore, in-depth research on the complexity and dynamics of the socio-ecological system’s synergies in KD areas is required. This must be coupled with deeper research on regional prevention and control, collaboration, and the improvement of an built-in control demonstration mannequin combining principle, expertise, and utility.
(9) To handle the frontier scientific subject of the issue in consolidating poverty alleviation ends in KD areas, it’s essential to develop regional {industry} clusters from the exploitation of ecological sources, ecological {industry} chains, and ecological merchandise.
KD reveals important spatial aggregation, and the diploma of KD typically exhibits an antagonistic coupling relationship with poverty incidence161. This is as a result of poor counties align geographically with karst areas and areas severely affected by KD162. Typical poverty alleviation relocation is taken into account an efficient technique to deal with spatial poverty traps163,164. However, points akin to the subsequent industrial improvement and employment after relocation in KD areas depart relocated households nonetheless going through the danger of falling again into poverty, making it troublesome to consolidate poverty alleviation outcomes. Therefore, future KD control should successfully join poverty alleviation with rural revitalization, exploit ecological sources in relocation areas, enhance ecological {industry} chains, develop distinctive ecological merchandise, understand the worth of ecological merchandise, and kind regional {industry} clusters, that are key to attaining rural revitalization in KD areas.
(10) To handle the frontier scientific subject of an incomplete monitoring community for KD control, it’s essential to combine multi-source monitoring information with ground-based measurements and develop rising applied sciences for extracting key data from pictures.
In KD monitoring, methods akin to spectral decomposition, stratified environmental reference, and spectral unmixing are used to extract key details about KD121,165,166. However, these monitoring strategies for KD are restricted by sluggish information replace speeds, low decision, and susceptibility to interference from climate elements like clouds and rain. More importantly, the lack of ground-based measurement information undermines the accuracy and reliability of the monitoring outcomes. Therefore, future KD control should mix multi-source monitoring information with ground-based measurements and use rising applied sciences to routinely extract and determine key data from pictures, thereby making a extra correct and dependable monitoring community.