Science diplomacy—conceptual points
Definition and protection of science diplomacy
Science diplomacy is an rising discipline of study on the intersection of worldwide relations and science coverage, which has obtained solely restricted consideration from students in the Central European area regardless of its growing significance. It is a idea that entails the use of science as a means of fostering cooperation and enhancing relations between nations. Its paramount relevance to addressing global challenges was emphasised on the Madrid Conference in 2018. It was additional agreed that science diplomacy is commonly not exploited to its full potential (Science for Diplomacy for Addressing Global Challenges 2019).
The out there literature investigates the idea of science diplomacy from numerous views. Some authors analyze science diplomacy in a regional cluster, whereas others try and conceptualize it. Other authors focus solely on the science diplomacy of a specific nation.
Diplomacy and its particular person dimensions are topic to geo-political developments (Goda and Čiefová 2019), responding to the dynamics of the world. As a consequence, new branches of diplomacy can emerge, requiring conceptualization. Despite the lengthy historical past of the connection between science and diplomacy, the time period ‘science diplomacy’ is a phenomenon of the twenty first century. Since then, there have been quite a few efforts to outline science diplomacy, which have produced completely different typologies of operations and motivations related to it (Turekian 2018).
Perhaps essentially the most well-known and cited categorization is the one proposed by the Royal Society of London and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). They outline science diplomacy in 3 ways: (1) “science in diplomacy”, the place scientific recommendation is used to tell international coverage; (2) “diplomacy for science”, in which political capital is used to advance scientific analysis; and (3) “science for diplomacy”, whereby scientific cooperation is used to enhance worldwide relations (The Royal Society 2010; American Association for the Advancement of Science 2009).
Within the framework of the Madrid Declaration on Science Diplomacy, science diplomacy is seen as “practices at the intersection of science, technology and foreign policy” (Science for Diplomacy for Addressing Global Challenges 2019). According to Su and Mayer (2018), science diplomacy could be outlined “as a set of practices that open up sustained channels of communication and cooperation for the main purpose of producing objective knowledge.” The authors emphasize its significance for trust-building in worldwide relations.
Turchetti and Lalli (2020) suggest a sophisticated idea of science diplomacy, termed “Science Diplomacy 2.0,” which emphasizes a stronger deal with addressing societal and global challenges. This strategy entails creating instruments to help policy-makers in making knowledgeable selections amongst numerous collaborative analysis choices. A key instrument in this framework is the accountable innovation observatory, which gathers and integrates knowledge from various disciplines utilizing a linked-data, multi-layered methodology. The goal is to research and prioritize analysis areas both regionally, based mostly on native societal wants, or globally, in response to broader challenges (Turchetti and Lalli 2020).
Ruffini (2020) describes science diplomacy as a set of practices the place worldwide relations and international coverage intersect with science and expertise. This discipline is intricate and multifaceted, characterised by its twin nature, which intertwines scientific pursuits with diplomatic aims. Equally important is the characterization of science diplomacy as a scientific self-discipline located on the intersection of worldwide relations and science (Arnaldi et al. 2021). Science diplomacy can be seen as a subfield of public diplomacy and a supply of delicate energy (Copeland 2011). Navigating this complexity requires a delicate understanding of its potential challenges.
One of the core traits of science diplomacy is its capability to create a impartial house for dialogue and cooperation. The scientific group operates based on extensively accepted social guidelines and values, prioritizing information and understanding above political or ethnic concerns. This allows collaboration regardless of broader political tensions. However, science shouldn’t be proof against drawbacks, together with chauvinism, intense competitors, and reputation-driven rivalries. Instances of misconduct or involvement with doubtful political or enterprise pursuits additional underscore its complexity (Flink 2020).
Building on these critiques, a rising physique of scholarship has begun to problem the normative assumptions underpinning science diplomacy. Hussein and Awad (2024), for instance, critique Western-led initiatives for perpetuating structural inequalities and implicit biases, significantly in their engagement with smaller or much less highly effective states. They argue that regardless of selling mutual profit, science diplomacy can reproduce hierarchical relationships and constrain the company of recipient international locations. This critique is especially related in assessing Slovakia’s place inside global science diplomacy networks and highlights the necessity to look at each the supposed and unintended penalties of exterior engagement.
Science diplomacy is commonly conflated with worldwide scientific cooperation, a mistake that has brought on confusion (Copeland 2016). Unlike worldwide science cooperation, science diplomacy explicitly entails state pursuits, exhibiting a twin nature of cooperation and competitors. This competitors extends not solely to global gamers but additionally amongst European Union member states (Flink and Schreiterer 2010).
An identical ambiguity surrounds the position of pupil mobility. While typically handled as half of cultural or instructional diplomacy, mobility applications could fall throughout the scope of science diplomacy when they’re used to foster bilateral analysis collaboration, scientific coaching, or international coverage aims—as is the case with initiatives comparable to Fulbright, Erasmus+, or Chinese authorities scholarships.
Flink (2020) raises two key criticisms of science diplomacy. First, there may be uncertainty about how science advantages if it turns into an instrument of international coverage. Second, it questions whether or not international coverage actually advantages from science diplomacy if an excessively idealized view of science is adopted.
International scientific relations typically function inside one of two paradigms: positive-sum sport diplomacy, which seeks shared global advantages by way of cooperation; or zero-sum sport diplomacy, which yields financial or reputational benefits for one facet on the expense of one other. It is crucial, due to this fact, to tell apart between utilizing science as a collaborative international coverage goal and utilizing it as a strategic instrument for geopolitical competitors (Penca 2018).
Science diplomacy could be applied in a number of methods. One strategy entails selling a nation’s scientific analysis and tradition to construct relationships and cooperation with different international locations. This contains supporting the worldwide mobility of scientists, fostering analysis and innovation, and collaborating with international establishments on tasks. Another strategy makes use of science to handle global challenges and promote worldwide cooperation, comparable to collaborating in discussions on local weather change or sustainability.
The strategy to science diplomacy of the international locations in focus of this study entails “science for diplomacy” and “diplomacy in science.” The French authorities, as an example, helps the worldwide mobility of French scientists, promotes analysis and innovation overseas, and collaborates with international establishments. France additionally addresses global challenges by way of science diplomacy by collaborating in worldwide negotiations, comparable to these on local weather change.
Science diplomacy performs a very important position not solely in addressing important global points but additionally in easing worldwide political tensions, significantly when customary diplomatic avenues are ineffective or unavailable. As highlighted by Copeland, the neutral and non-partisan nature of scientific language considerably contributes to this course of. An instance of this was noticed throughout the Cuban Missile Crisis in the Cold War period, the place, regardless of heightened tensions, Soviet and American scientists continued their joint efforts in numerous analysis fields comparable to polar research, atmospheric science, healthcare, deep-sea exploration, and the administration of radioactive waste. More just lately, amidst the disputes over Crimea and Eastern Ukraine, collaboration between U.S. and Russian scientists continued, particularly in Arctic analysis, operations on the International Space Station, and in essential worldwide negotiations just like the 2015 Iran nuclear deal and the 2013 Syrian chemical weapons disarmament. (Copeland 2016) Yet, it’s simpler to verify the notion that good diplomatic relations between international locations facilitate efficient analysis cooperation, it’s more difficult to display that worldwide analysis and innovation collaboration has considerably improved relations between rival international locations (Penca 2018).
Governments worldwide pursue related science diplomacy agendas, comparable to Japan’s “Science and Technology Diplomacy” program (2007), Germany’s “Außenwissenschaftspolitik” (2008), and Denmark’s “Techplomacy” (2017) (Kunkel 2021).
A survey performed throughout the Central European Initiative (CEI), together with Slovakia, recognized motivations for investing in science diplomacy. These embrace:
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influencing decision-makers, financial leaders, and public opinion in different international locations;
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accessing analysis findings, researchers, and sources overseas to boost nationwide innovation capability;
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selling nationwide R&D achievements as half of global advertising methods.
In most international locations concerned in the study, coaching of each diplomats and scientists is important, as is networking between the diplomatic and scientific communities (Arnaldi and Tessarolo 2019).
Similarly, science diplomacy of the area of Central, Eastern and South-eastern Europe was investigated, categorizing scientific cooperation into two clusters: Southern and South-eastern Europe, and Central and Eastern Europe. Slovakia falls into the latter, alongside Belarus, Bulgaria, Czechia, Hungary, Moldova, and Poland (Arnaldi et al. 2021).
Fikkers and Horvat (2014) establish causes for bilateral Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) agreements, dividing them into slender and broad paradigms. The Broad paradigm aligns with science diplomacy, together with aims comparable to public diplomacy, reworking diplomatic relationships, and addressing safety issues.
In relation to safety issues, one other facet of science diplomacy emerges—the growing position of synthetic intelligence (AI). Not surprisingly, AI has already began altering science diplomacy practices, motivating a quantity of students to research these impacts, challenges and doable threats. For instance, not solely the moral implications of AI have been explored, but additionally its capability to boost diplomatic efforts, thereby enhancing responses to global challenges (Varela 2024). Konovalova’s investigation is twofold, as she considers each instructions—AI for diplomacy and diplomacy for AI. She concludes that digital abilities and the mixing of AI can strengthen diplomatic personnel and enhance the effectiveness of diplomatic instruments (Konovalova 2023). Furthermore, the potential of AI as a helpful instrument in science diplomacy is highlighted, significantly for addressing shared global challenges and fostering worldwide cooperation (Baig et al. 2024).
Actors of science diplomacy
Science diplomacy could be thought-about to be a particular discipline of diplomacy and international coverage. Since it typically intersects with targets in different domains, the roles and backgrounds of science diplomacy actors could also be various. It is incessantly distinguished between states and non-state actors (Reinhardt 2021). Hence, science diplomacy can, as an example, be a job of profession diplomats, scientists, or politicians, in addition to science counselors, advisors or specialists (Szkarłat 2020; Reinhardt 2021). It may additionally contain funding businesses, civil society organizations, the media, or the personal sector (Sabzalieva et al., 2021).
Some authors focus totally on states as the first actors in science diplomacy, although they don’t underestimate the position of non-state actors. Bertelsen (2024) considers the state to be a key actor resulting from its capacity to utilise science for international coverage functions. Szkarłat (2020) provides that essentially the most superior international locations in phrases of their expertise and implementation of science diplomacy are wealthy, industrialized states. While states are perceived as highly effective actors, many non-state actors additionally possess important monetary sources and mental capacities. States and non-state actors can each compete and cooperate. Moreover, non-state actors’ actions are sometimes materially supported by states, utilised as instruments, or tolerated inside diplomatic frameworks (Bertelsen 2024). This distinction is related to our analysis, because it predominantly entails states but additionally incorporates stakeholders such because the U.S. Fulbright Program.
Moomaw (2018) addresses the query of whether or not profitable science diplomacy requires skilled diplomats to amass particular scientific information, thus changing into scientist-diplomats, or whether or not scientists ought to refocus on diplomacy, changing into diplomat-scientists. His analysis highlights necessary coverage implications, concluding that profitable science diplomacy “requires negotiators to have a sound understanding of underlying science” and “input from scientists who understand and can contribute to the policy process”. Therefore, diplomacy mustn’t ignore scientific enter, whereas science alone is unlikely to create a important coverage influence (Moomaw 2018).
Countries also can conduct science diplomacy by way of their membership in worldwide organizations or fora. Overlapping science-, health-, or environment-related aims could result in joint approaches for tackling shared challenges. An instance is the emergence of the All-Atlantic Ocean Research Alliance. Another instance is the International Atomic Energy Agency, which has a lengthy historical past of integrating diplomatic actions into its scientific initiatives (Adamson 2021).
Another kind of science diplomacy actor is analysis institutes, significantly these specializing in worldwide relations or the economic system of particular geographical areas. These institutes goal to facilitate or strengthen diplomatic ties with international locations in their focus areas. Other actors embrace universities, non-profit partnerships (Reinhardt 2021), and even foundations. Charities, particularly in the U.S., typically fund analysis collaborations and academic exchanges, enhancing science diplomacy efforts (Bertelsen 2024).
Science diplomacy of the U.S., France, and China
Prior to the start of the brand new millennium, not many international locations had been ready to purposefully tackle and interact with S&T points in their international coverage or to compete for global expertise. Since then, there was a surge in worldwide scientific methods, which have had a important influence on worldwide relations (Flink and Schreiterer 2010). While most massive international locations because the 2000s have formally institutionalized science and expertise diplomacy initiatives, their aims differ significantly. Flink and Schreiterer (2010) developed a typology of nationwide approaches in direction of science diplomacy. They discovered that for the U.S.’s science diplomacy, political affect performs a central position, whereas international locations like France, Switzerland, Germany, and Japan primarily deal with getting access to promising markets and developments in R&D, in addition to selling their science, expertise, analysis, and better schooling in the global market.
As Copeland recollects, the capability for science diplomacy varies considerably amongst international locations, primarily influenced by their dimension, wealth, and degree of growth. Major powers just like the U.S., the UK, and France have the sources and infrastructure to have interaction in a broad vary of science diplomacy actions. In distinction, smaller nations are likely to specialize in areas that align with their particular strengths and wishes. For occasion, Switzerland focuses on industrial technological innovation, whereas New Zealand concentrates on points associated to agricultural greenhouse gasoline emissions, biosecurity, and phytosanitation. Generally, much less developed international locations face challenges in participating successfully in science diplomacy resulting from their restricted S&T capacities (Copeland 2016).
According to the Secretary of the Indian Department of Biotechnology, the Western international locations “have seen science and education as instruments of foreign policy, of income and of brain-gain” (UNESCO 2015). This notion represents a important problem for rising economies, which frequently battle with mind drain. Consequently, there may be an inherent rigidity between developed international locations utilizing science diplomacy to boost their worldwide competitiveness and people who function conventional exporters of scientific expertise.
In the world’s main scientific energy, the U.S., numerous establishments tackle completely different elements of S&T coverage, coordinated by the White House Office for S&T Policy, which has no devoted price range for science diplomacy. According to Flink and Schreiterer (2010), the institutional setting makes the U.S. worldwide S&T coverage “highly fragmented, imponderable and inward-looking”. Knudsen (2021) attributes the comparatively restricted official science diplomacy initiatives of the U.S., incommensurate with its financial and geopolitical clout, to the pure attraction of the U.S. analysis ecosystem. However, the U.S. runs one of essentially the most well known and prestigious scholarship applications in the world, established in 1946. The Fulbright Scholar Program yearly allows 800 U.S. students to go overseas and 900 international students to come back to the United States, contributing to mutual understanding and addressing frequent societal challenges.
France is one other main participant in science diplomacy, working one of the biggest science diplomacy networks, with 160 embassies and substantial sources. In 2009, France adopted a National Strategy for Research and Innovation, enshrined in 2013 and introduced each 5 years by the federal government to Parliament. The French strategy to science diplomacy was formally laid out in the 2013 Science Diplomacy for France report.
Science diplomacy is seen as an necessary instrument for exciting growth, sustaining France’s management, driving innovation, and mobilizing global networks for French (and European) pursuits. The authorities goals to extend interplay between France’s scientific group and its diplomatic community to:
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Support the standing of French researchers and corporations in worldwide competitors;
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Align scientific efforts with international coverage aims;
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Raise consciousness amongst researchers of growth points and construct the Global South’s scientific capabilities (Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs of France 2013).
To improve France’s attractiveness in analysis and innovation, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, along with the Ministry for Higher Education and Research, recognized 5 priorities:
1. Enhance the notion of the French analysis system overseas;
2. Improve admission situations and amenities for international researchers in France;
3. Enhance France’s science and expertise picture in most people’s eyes by selling a tradition of science and expertise;
4. Encourage large-scale analysis amenities to be established in France and entry by French researchers to such amenities overseas;
5. Contribute to internationalizing the French social sciences and humanities sector.
Responsibilities for science diplomacy are shared between the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs, particular person institutes and universities, and French National Research Agency (Flink and Schreiterer 2010). An necessary instrument is the community of French Research Institutes Abroad (UMIFRE), lively in 34 international locations, focusing totally on the Mediterranean and the Middle East (Knudsen 2021).
Flink and Schreiterer (2010) describe France’s science diplomacy as a matrix with three dimensions, the place completely different world areas or international locations are represented on one axis, and businesses and their respective applications are represented on the opposite two. French science attachés are seconded from completely different institutional stakeholders and administer important funds by way of a selection of applications. Most of the funds are allotted for scholarships for postgraduate research or analysis stays in France. Except for agri-food and well being safety in Sub-Saharan Africa, France doesn’t set as an goal of its science diplomacy the addressing of global challenges.
Science and expertise have historically been central to Chinese international coverage, significantly in its interactions with the West, with the first goal of modernizing China’s economic system. In the late twentieth century, China was a information importer with weak home scientific capabilities and was unable to have interaction in science diplomacy as developed nations did. However, market reforms launched in the late Nineteen Seventies spurred many years of unprecedented financial progress and technological development. Today, China has reached or exceeded technological parity with developed international locations in sure areas, enabling it to have interaction in science diplomacy as a key global actor.
Following the Western instance, in the identical approach as with the ideas of delicate energy and public diplomacy, China has just lately adopted the concept of science diplomacy and tried to combine it into its personal coverage approaches to worldwide relations. While China already possesses the potential to pursue science diplomacy as a means of projecting delicate energy, it has not but turned it into a coverage motion. However, the significance of science diplomacy is explicitly acknowledged in official coverage paperwork. In the National thirteenth Five-Year Plan for S&T Innovation the necessity for fostering the systemic design of nationwide science and expertise diplomacy and cooperation is acknowledged, outlining its targets – to “deepen intergovernmental scientific and technological cooperation, classify and formulate country-specific strategies, enrich the scientific and technological content of new great power relationships, promote the establishment of innovative strategic partnerships with developed countries in science and technology, build an innovative community of mutually beneficial cooperation with neighboring countries, and extending the framework of the Science and Technology Partnership Program for developing countries” (PRC State Council, 2016).
According to Freeman (2019), China’s science diplomacy is actually an extension of its worldwide science cooperation insurance policies, and it’s questionable whether or not science diplomacy has been totally developed as a coherent coverage. Even its flagship developmental technique—the Belt and Road Initiative—incorporates science and expertise however has not explicitly framed science diplomacy as a coverage instrument. Fedasiuk et al. (2021) posit that Chinese S&T diplomats, stationed throughout 52 international locations, primarily deal with monitoring technological developments, figuring out funding alternatives for Chinese corporations, and supporting the Made in China 2025 technique. Their efforts typically prioritize biotechnology and synthetic intelligence and deal with technologically superior international locations just like the U.S., Russia, the UK, and Japan.
China’s dedication to science diplomacy was additional institutionalized with the adoption of a Science and Technology Progress Law in March 2023 (Mok 2023). This regulation varieties half of a broader coverage effort to extend worldwide scientific cooperation and improve China’s global affect by way of science and expertise. China’s diplomatic missions are central to implementing this agenda. Reflecting this nationwide technique, the Chinese Embassy in Slovakia promotes technological collaboration and innovation as half of its science diplomacy outreach.
China’s strategy to science diplomacy can be linked to actions in the Arctic and Antarctica, significantly by way of the Polar Silk Road. Such ambitions have been integrated into the 14th Five-Year Plan (Lanteigne 2021). China’s presence in the Arctic area is commonly thought-about suspicious. Nevertheless, Chinese scientists have managed to determine appreciable networks and develop collaborations (Su and Mayer 2018). Furthermore, Confucius Institutes, have confronted scrutiny for his or her potential position in espionage and affect operations, elevating questions concerning the broader implications of Chinese science diplomacy.
The choice of the United States, France, and China as case research displays their contrasting approaches to science diplomacy and distinctive roles in global and regional contexts. The U.S. makes use of a “science for diplomacy” mannequin, leveraging scientific collaboration to realize broader international coverage goals. France exemplifies a “diplomacy for science” strategy, selling its establishments and affect in the European analysis panorama. China, as an rising science diplomacy actor, combines expertise entry initiatives with strategic partnerships in Central and Eastern Europe, providing a distinctive perspective.